Richard J. Klimoski

Team Mental Model: Construct or Metaphor?

There has been a recent resurgence of interest in group cognition in the field of organizational science. However, despite the apparent enthusiasm for the notion of the group mind in some modern guise, important conceptual work is needed to examine the concept critically. We attempt to do this in our treatment of the content, form, function, antecedents, and consequences of team mental models. In addition, we illustrate how the construct can bring explanatory power to theories of team performance and offer other implications for research and practice.

The effects of intragroup forces on intergroup conflict resolution

Abstract Forces which are part of a representatives role as he negotiates intergroup disputes were examined in a laboratory experiment. Prenegotiation experience, cohesiveness, and evaluation potential were manipulated in the context of a union management bargaining problem to determine their effect on the length of time needed to reach agreement. It was found that the effects of prenegotiation experience in previous research were likely to be confounded with the latter two independent variables. Further, these variables interact in complex ways to produce longer negotiation times for representatives who faced postnegotiation evaluation by a cohesive group.

Accountability and negotiator behavior

Abstract The need to resolve conflict between groups exists in numerous forms within and among organizations. However, the relationship between a representative and his constituency are seen to affect the ease with which this is done. The present study focuses on spokesmen or representatives as they attempt to reach an agreement that would be mutually acceptable to the parties involved. In a laboratory experiment, mode of representative selection (election by the team versus random selection) and the nature of accountability (no, continuous, or end of negotiation session review by constituents) were manipulated to assess their impact on bargaining difficulty. Consistent with previous research these two variables were found to interact, yet the specific results were unanticipated. Elected representatives did not appear to be systematically influenced by the various levels of accountability. In contrast, randomly selected spokesmen facing no review showed the fewest deadlocks, tended to reach agreement at a faster rate, and reported least pressure, frustration, and difficulty. Selected spokesmen facing either continuous or end accountability tended to react similarly and experienced the most difficulty in the study. The notion of a representatives mandate and the emerging literature on social facilitation were used to interpret the results. Ancillary data provided by subjects on their group (team) member interactions were found to be related to felt commitment to a teams position. This further emphasized the importance of intragroup processes to intergroup conflict resolution.

The Impact of Flexitime on Employee Attitudes

This investigation of flexitime did not support the traditional flexitime consequences for work satisfaction or leisure satisfaction. However, employees working under a flexitime schedule reported ...

Doing the right thing in the workplace: Responsibility in the face of accountability

Changing trends and the nature of the work force dictate increased personal responsibility by employees and expanded use of self-management practices. Nevertheless, organizations also feel the need to maintain external control. We propose a progressive view of accountability theory which can resolve the dilemma of how internal and external control can effectively coexist. Success of accountability forces is determined primarily by the relationship between the principal (party to whom one is accountable) and the agent (employee). The agent’s felt responsibility is enhanced to the extent that accountability leads to the structuring of expectations, the agent’s perceptions of the task or activity as significant, and the agent’s perception of control over the situation. Propositions that may be used to guide future research are offered throughout the article.

Use of verbal protocols to trace cognitions associated with self- and supervisor evaluations of performance

Abstract Verbal protocol analysis was used to trace cognitive processes for 36 managers as they evaluated their own performance and the performance of their subordinates. Attribution theory and exploratory analyses were used in order to detect differences in information processing between the self-evaluations and the evaluations of subordinates. These results appear to clarify differences in patterns of rating outcomes usually obtained for the two rating types. Empirical support was found for the application of attribution theory in the models of performance appraisal. However, a number of discoveries were made which emphasize the need for more empirical research in modeling the appraisal process.

Theory presentation in human resource management

Abstract There are a variety of ways to develop and present conceptual material. However, this article reviews approaches that have been found to be particularly useful by many contributors to theory in Human Resource Management. It also highlights the distinction between the creation and development of ideas and the clear communication of these ideas to a targeted audience. While there is no substitute for critical and analytical thinking, it is argued that many potentially good notions fail to get the attention that they deserve as a result of weak or ineffective writing. Consequently, suggestions toward improving this aspect of theory building are offered as well.

Negotiator status and accountability source: A study of negotiator behavior

Abstract The nature of a negotiators mandate (based on competence, affect, or unspecified) and of the group that was to review his performance (his own team or strangers) were manipulated to assess their impact on bargaining behavior in a laboratory experiment. Both factors had unique and joint effects on negotiator behavior. Spokesmen elected due to competence appeared to perceive more latitude in their roles, felt more free to deviate from their teams position, but took longer to reach agreement. Freedom from the constituent positions was even more pronounced when they were evaluated by strangers. In contrast, spokesmen elected because of amiability seemed to adopt a compromising bargaining strategy, were very loyal to their groups, and did not deviate. But they also took more time to reach agreement when reviewed by their own team. Both negotiated solution quality and reported satisfaction were higher when spokesmen were reviewed by their own teams regardless of their election base. In sum, the data support a model of the negotiation process that stresses the importance of the relationship between a spokesman and his constituency to the outcome of bargaining.

The choice of a group spokesman in bargaining: Member or outsider?☆

Abstract This experiment explored the effects of forces stemming from a spokesmans constituency membership and his accountability on bargaining behavior in a simulation setting. Representatives were either constituency members who had taken part in developing the position they were to represent or were outsiders. Half of the representatives were required to have their agreed upon solution ratified by their constituencies while the remaining spokesmen merely had to present their solution. Results indicated that constituency member representatives experienced greater difficulty in negotiations. Behavioral as well as self-report measures demonstrate the importance and complexity involved in the use of a group spokesman. The accountability manipulation was found to be of lesser consequence.

Simulation Methodologies in Experimental Research on Negotiations by Representatives

This paper reviews recent experimental (primarily social-psychological) research on intergroup conflict resolution with an emphasis on methodology. Specifically, it focuses on the creation of conflict forces and representational role obligations in simulations. The resulting typologies clarify the numerous strategies used by investigators. The paper calls for a systematic evaluation of these strategies as researchers appear to be unaware of their potential impact. It is also argued that selected arrangements described would help to enhance simulations to be congruent with a model of intergroup bargaining processes.