Richard K. B. Jenkins

Analysis of Patterns of Bushmeat Consumption Reveals Extensive Exploitation of Protected Species in Eastern Madagascar

Understanding the patterns of wild meat consumption from tropical forests is important for designing approaches to address this major threat to biodiversity and mitigate potential pathways for transmission of emerging diseases. Bushmeat consumption has been particularly poorly studied in Madagascar, one of the worlds hottest biodiversity hotspots. Studying bushmeat consumption is challenging as many species are protected and researchers must consider the incentives faced by informants. Using interviews with 1154 households in 12 communes in eastern Madagascar, as well as local monitoring data, we investigated the importance of socio-economic variables, taste preference and traditional taboos on consumption of 50 wild and domestic species. The majority of meals contain no animal protein. However, respondents consume a wide range of wild species and 95% of respondents have eaten at least one protected species (and nearly 45% have eaten more than 10). The rural/urban divide and wealth are important predictors of bushmeat consumption, but the magnitude and direction of the effect varies between species. Bushmeat species are not preferred and are considered inferior to fish and domestic animals. Taboos have provided protection to some species, particularly the Endangered Indri, but we present evidence that this taboo is rapidly eroding. By considering a variety of potential influences on consumption in a single study we have improved understanding of who is eating bushmeat and why. Evidence that bushmeat species are not generally preferred meats suggest that projects which increase the availability of domestic meat and fish may have success at reducing demand. We also suggest that enforcement of existing wildlife and firearm laws should be a priority, particularly in areas undergoing rapid social change. The issue of hunting as an important threat to biodiversity in Madagascar is only now being fully recognised. Urgent action is required to ensure that heavily hunted species are adequately protected.

The distribution and conservation of bats in the dry regions of Madagascar

We carried out extensive field surveys in the dry forest portions of Madagascar to document the species of bats occurring in these regions. These data combined with information in the literature and museum specimen records indicate that 28 species of Chiroptera occur in this region of the island, of which we documented 27 during our inventories. The community composition at sites occurring in areas of water-eroded sedimentary rock is notably different from sites on alluvial substrates. In contrast to the majority of native land mammal species on Madagascar, much of the microchiropteran fauna is not dependent on large tracts of intact forest and anthropogenic perturbations of forests may have less direct impact on their long-term survival. Conservation strategies for Chiroptera in the dry regions of the island should focus on reducing various types of human disturbance of cave environments.

Novel approach for quantifying illegal bushmeat consumption reveals high consumption of protected species in Madagascar

Information on the extent of bushmeat hunting is needed to assess the likely impact on hunted species, to provide information on the opportunity cost to local people of conservation, and to judge the efficacy of interventions at reducing pressure. However, where hunting is illegal, or socially unacceptable, respondents may not answer honestly to direct questions about hunting or consumption of bushmeat. We adapted a specialized method for investigating sensitive behaviours (the randomized response technique, RRT) and questioned 1,851 people in Madagascar about their consumption of six species, using either RRT or direct questions. For most species at most sites RRT and direct questions returned similar estimates of the proportion of the population who had consumed bushmeat in the previous year. However, RRT resulted in significantly higher estimates of bushmeat consumption in communities surrounding a protected area, where conservation activities made such questions sensitive. RRT has been predominately used in Europe and the USA; we demonstrate that it can provide a valuable approach for studying rule-breaking among people with poor literacy in low income countries. Between 12 and 33% of people across our sites had eaten brown lemur ( Eulemur spp.), and 12–29% had eaten sifaka ( Propithecus spp.) in the previous year. These results add to the growing body of evidence that hunting of protected species in Madagascar is a serious problem requiring urgent action. Conservation interventions to tackle bushmeat hunting will make questions about hunting or consumption more sensitive, increasing the need for researchers to use appropriate approaches for asking sensitive questions.

Management implications of antelope habitat use in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania

High cattle densities, expanding human settlements and the conversion of miombo woodland into farms and teak plantations are threatening wildlife populations in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania, and conservation research on this internationally important wetland is required as part of an integrated approach to its future management. The effect of land-use change on antelopes (family Bovidae) was investigated by surveying tracks and dung during three seasons over 1999–2000 in an area of mixed land-use. Use of miombo woodland, grassland and farmland habitats by antelopes was highest during the wet season (April–May), probably representing the movements of animals away from the floodplain. Duiker, puku Kobus vardoni and reedbuck Redunca spp. predominantly used the farmland during the wet season, at which time buffalo Syncerus caffer were more common in the miombo woodland. The findings of this study have three main implications for the conservation of the valley. Firstly, the inadvertent provision of suitable wet season habitats for puku and other small-medium antelopes by rice farmers could lead to higher levels of illegal hunting, and may increase the potential for conflict between agriculture and wildlife. Secondly, the loss of miombo vegetation will most strongly affect the larger species of antelope (sable Hippotragus niger and waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus ), which favour open-woodland habitats; future work should therefore determine levels of habitat use by antelopes in and around maturing teak plantations. Thirdly, any management prescriptions to conserve the Kilombero Valley should include the land on the edge of the floodplain.

Habitat use, roost selection and conservation of bats in Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park, Madagascar

Although the land mammals of Madagascar have been the subject of many studies, the island’s bats have yet to feature prominently on the research or conservation agenda. In this study we used mist nets, acoustic sampling and cave surveys to assess habitat use, seasonality and roost selection. Four microchiropteran species (Triaenops rufus, T. furculus, Miniopterus manavi and Myotis goudoti) appeared to be strongly associated with the forest interior based on trapping, but analysis of time-expanded echolocation recordings revealed that T. rufus and M.␣manavi were frequently recorded in forest edges and clearings. Bat activity was significantly lower inside the forest than at the interface between agricultural land and forest. The caves visited most often by tourists were low in bat abundance and species richness. Anjohikinakina Cave, which was visited infrequently by people, was used by five species and contained between 54% (winter) and 99% (summer) of bats counted in 16 caves and is a site of national importance for bat conservation. Hipposideros commersoni was only netted in our study area during October and may be a migrant to the site or present but inactive during the austral winter. The forest surrounding the caves is therefore important because it provides cover for emerging bats and a potential source of invertebrate prey whilst the forest edge is important to foraging bats.

Hunting and consumption of mammals and birds by people in urban areas of western Madagascar.

We assessed the consumption and hunting of wild animals by people in urban areas of western Madagascar using structured questionnaires in households and direct observations. Six wild mammal and five wild bird species were reported, or observed, to be sources of bushmeat although fish and domestic animals were the preferred and cheapest sources of animal protein. Bushmeat accounted for 10% of the meat consumed the day before our questionnaires were completed. Common tenrec Tenrec ecaudatus and bush pig Potamochoerus larvatus were the preferred wild meat and the former was also the most expensive type of meat. Taboos and strong dislikes limited the consumption of domestic pigs, bush pigs, goats, lemurs and fruit bats. Game species were hunted according to their availability, which coincided with the legal hunting season for fruit bats but only partly so for the other game species. Illegal hunting of Verreauxi’s sifaka Propithecus verreauxi is cause for concern and assessments of primate consumption may have been underestimated because of reluctance of interviewees to admit illegal activities.

Not rare, but threatened: the endemic Madagascar flying fox Pteropus rufus in a fragmented landscape

The endemic Madagascar flying fox Pteropus rufus is threatened by habitat loss at roost sites and hunting for bushmeat. There is no conservation plan for this species, even though it is categorized on the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable and plays an important role as a seed disperser. In the Mangoro valley of central eastern Madagascar we monitored roost occupancy and abun- dance of P. rufus on 15 occasions at six sites over a 12- month period and conducted a detailed assessment of eight roosts during July 2004. There was considerable monthly variation in bat abundance and only two sites contained bats during every visit. Three sites were occupied only between September and March and may act as maternity or nursery roosts. Evidence of hunting was found at three roosts, and fire and forest clearance are ubiquitous threats. Two roosts were in Eucalyptus plantations and six were in small (2.2 - 28.7 ha) isolated fragments of degraded, mid elevation dense humid forest. All roosts were outside protected areas but were within 20 km of relatively intact forest. Faecal analysis revealed a diet of native forest tree species, cultivated fruits and Eucalyptus flowers. P. rufus in the Mangoro valley, and elsewhere in Madagascar, appears to survive in human-impacted environments by the inclusion of exotic plants in its diet and the ability to move between roosts. We provide conservation recommendations for P. rufus at both local and national levels.

Forest disturbance and river proximity influence chameleon abundance in Madagascar

Many chameleon species are thought to be restricted to primary rainforest where they are threatened by the continued fragmentation and degradation of natural vegetation. We surveyed chameleon abundance in forest subject to high disturbance, low disturbance and in a riparian zone in Madagascar. Four Calumma species and Brookesia thieli were present in all habitats, but B. minima was not recorded from the high-disturbance forest. Chameleons were more abundant in rainforest subject to low-disturbance (e.g. selective timber extraction) than in patches of high-disturbance forest that was recovering from burning. Riparian zones within low-disturbance forest provided linear patches of high chameleon abundance and are therefore an important conservation resource because they also protect a range of other endemic and threatened species. Carefully designed management plans are needed to conserve biodiversity and allow the sustainable use of forest products by people in Madagascar.

SEASONAL FOOD HABITS OF FIVE SYMPATRIC FOREST MICROCHIROPTERANS IN WESTERN MADAGASCAR

Abstract We determined the foods habits of 5 species of microchiropteran bats (Hipposideros commersoni, Triaenops rufus, Triaenops furculus, Myotis goudoti, and Miniopterus manavi) in the austral winter and summer in a dry deciduous forest in western Madagascar using fecal analysis. We also assessed food availability and bat activity in 4 forest microhabitats. Despite overlap in dietary composition, H. commersoni consumed mainly Coleoptera; M. goudoti consumed mainly Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, and Araneae; M. manavi consumed mainly Hemiptera; and T. rufus and T. furculus consumed mainly Lepidoptera. Diptera were the most abundant insects in traps but were rarely encountered in feces. H. commersoni was not netted during the austral winter, but the other 4 species changed their diet according to seasonal availability, with lepidopterans the most important diet items in winter and coleopterans in summer. We consistently trapped a higher abundance of potential bat prey at the forest edge, whereas the forest interior was low in both food availability and bat activity. The 5 microchiropterans studied partitioned the available food mainly through dietary specialization, although spatial and temporal partitioning also may play a role. More research is needed to assess levels of dependency on forest by these bats, and to investigate the seasonal ecology of H. commersoni and interspecific competition between T. rufus and T. furculus.

The diet of three synanthropic bats (Chiroptera: Molossidae) from eastern Madagascar

ABSTRACT We analysed 890 faecal samples from 145 molossid bats in eastern Madagascar during the austral summer and winter. Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera and Diptera were the most important sources of food for Mops leucostigma, Mormopterus jugularis and Chaerephon pumilus. The percentage volume of Hemiptera and Lepidoptera were similar in the diet, pooled across season, for all species but significant differences were found for Diptera and Coleoptera. Mops leucostigma, however, had the highest volume of Diptera and M. jugularis of Coleoptera. Hemiptera were an important food source for all species during both seasons, whereas Coleoptera were prevalent in the diet only during the summer. Diptera were rarely eaten by M. jugularis but constituted a major source of food for the other two species during the winter. Although there was little evidence of strong interspecific dietary partitioning, M. jugularis appeared to have a more limited dietary composition at the ordinal level. Major differences in dietary composition were between season rather than species at the ordinal level. Further investigations are recommended to assess the potential role of molossids in consuming economic pests of cotton in Madagascar.