Richard K. Morgan

Environmental impact assessment: the state of the art

This paper reviews progress in environmental impact assessment (EIA) over the last 40 years, with particular emphasis on the last 15–20 years, and poses the question: is EIA ready to meet future challenges? The first part of the paper briefly examines the spread of EIA around the world, recent trends in the uptake of EIA, and the continuing emergence of variants of impact assessment. The second part of the paper concentrates on current issues in EIA, under three broad headings: theory and EIA, practice issues and EIA effectiveness. An important thread running through the second part of the paper is how discussions about EIA theory, a feature of the last 15 years, are affecting the different areas of EIA practice and evaluation.

The interminable issue of effectiveness: substantive purposes, outcomes and research challenges in the advancement of environmental impact assessment theory

An analysis of studies of the outcomes of environmental impact assessment (EIA) indicates that its role in consent and design decisions is limited, due primarily to passive integration with the decision processes it is intended to inform. How much EIA helps sustainable development is largely unknown, but it is hypothesised that it is more than is typically assumed, through a plethora of causes, including emancipation of stakeholders and incremental change in the bureaucracy, companies and scientific institutions. To enhance the effectiveness of EIA, research should focus more on theory about the nature and operation of diverse causal processes, even though the concepts, methods and analytical challenges would be substantial.

Environmental impact assessment of projects in the People's Republic of China: new law, old problems

Abstract After more than 20 years of experience with environmental impact assessment (EIA), the government of the Peoples Republic of China is set to introduce a new EIA Law, in September 2003, in which strategic environmental assessment (SEA) complements the current project-oriented EIA process. In general, the new law does not attempt to modify the existing EIA system in any radical ways, suggesting that the government consider current practices satisfactory. In order to assess the likely prospects of the new EIA Law for project-level EIA, this paper presents an evaluation of the current EIA process in China, first, establishing the historical context of the current process and, second, considering the main issues and concerns relating to the institutional and procedural arrangements, and practical implementation of the process. The main problems highlighted are as follows: the narrow historic focus on pollution of air, water and soil, at the expense of the consideration of wider environmental, social and health impacts; environmental protection agencies being funded by development-oriented local government administrations; the lack of consideration of alternatives in EIA processes; and the lack of effective public participation. More specific procedural issues are also discussed. On the basis of this analysis, we make recommendations for improving the effectiveness of EIA at the project level. The introduction of SEA in the new law marks a real step forward for EIA in China, although it appears to exclude central government policies, and there are improved provisions for public participation. However, the prospects for EIA in China will remain mixed as long as the new law leaves project-level EIA largely unchanged.

Sustainable “what”? A cognitive approach to understanding sustainable development

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to explore the meaning of sustainable development held by New Zealand “thought leaders” and “influencers” promoting sustainability, business, or sustainable business. It seeks to compare inductively derived worldviews with theories associated with sustainability and the humanity-nature relationship. Design/methodology/approach - Worldviews were explored through a cognitive mapping exercise. A total of 21 thought leaders and influencers constructed maps of their understanding of sustainable development. These maps were analysed to reveal commonalities and differences. Findings - Participant maps illustrated disparate levels of detail and complexity. Those participants promoting business generally emphasized the economic domain, accepting economic growth and development as the key to sustainable development. An emphasis on the environmental domain, the future, limits to the Earths resources, and achievement through various radical means, was more commonly articulated by those promoting sustainability. Participants promoting sustainable business held elements of both approaches, combining an emphasis on the environmental domain and achievement of sustainable development by various reformist means. Research limitations/implications - This study identified the range of worldviews expressed by 21 thought leaders and influencers across three main domains only – promoters of sustainability, business or both. Extending this sample and exploring how these and other views arise and are represented within a wider population could be the subject of further research. Practical implications - Such divergence of opinion as to what connotes sustainable development across even a small sample does not bode well for its achievement. The elucidation of the worldview of promoters of sustainable business points to the need to consider more carefully the implications of environmentalism, and other aspects of sustainability, integrated into a business agenda. Originality/value - This paper contributes to empirical research on environmental worldviews which has barely penetrated discussion of sustainability within the management and business literature. It shows cognitive mapping to be an effective technique for investigating the meaning of a conceptual theme like sustainable development.

Seeds of hope? Exploring business actors’ diverse understandings of sustainable development

Purpose - – The purpose of this paper is first, to investigate empirically the plurality of understanding surrounding sustainability held by those working in the business sector, and second, to consider the likelihood of a dialogic accounting that would account for the plurality of perspectives identified. Design/methodology/approach - – The subjects of this study are those people actively working to incorporate sustainability within New Zealand business, both business people and their sustainability advisors. Participant’s subjective understanding is investigated using Q methodology, a method used widely by social science researchers to investigate typical views on a particular topic, from an analysis of the order in which participants individually sort a sample of stimuli. In this study, the stimuli were opinion statements. Findings - – Five typical understandings of sustainable development were identified, including understandings more usually attributed to business antagonists than business. Conflicts between environment and development are acknowledged by most participants. However, an agonistic debate that will create spaces, practices, and institutions through which marginalised understandings of sustainable development might be addressed and contested, is yet to be established and will not be easy. Originality/value - – The paper contributes to the few empirical investigations of the plurality of understandings of sustainability held by those people working to incorporate sustainability within business. It is further distinguished by the authors attempt to describe divergent beliefs and values, absent from their immediate business context, and absent from any academic priming. The paper also provides an illustrative example of the application of Q methodology, a method not commonly used in accounting research.

The effectiveness of health impact assessment in influencing decision-making in Australia and New Zealand 2005–2009

BackgroundHealth Impact Assessment (HIA) involves assessing how proposals may alter the determinants of health prior to implementation and recommends changes to enhance positive and mitigate negative impacts. HIAs growing use needs to be supported by a strong evidence base, both to validate the value of its application and to make its application more robust. We have carried out the first systematic empirical study of the influence of HIA on decision-making and implementation of proposals in Australia and New Zealand. This paper focuses on identifying whether and how HIAs changed decision-making and implementation and impacts that participants report following involvement in HIAs.MethodsWe used a two-step process first surveying 55 HIAs followed by 11 in-depth case studies. Data gathering methods included questionnaires with follow-up interview, semi-structured interviews and document collation. We carried out deductive and inductive qualitative content analyses of interview transcripts and documents as well as simple descriptive statistics.ResultsWe found that most HIAs are effective in some way. HIAs are often directly effective in changing, influencing, broadening areas considered and in some cases having immediate impact on decisions. Even when HIAs are reported to have no direct effect on a decision they are often still effective in influencing decision-making processes and the stakeholders involved in them. HIA participants identify changes in relationships, improved understanding of the determinants of health and positive working relationships as major and sustainable impacts of their involvement.ConclusionsThis study clearly demonstrates direct and indirect effectiveness of HIA influencing decision making in Australia and New Zealand. We recommend that public health leaders and policy makers should be confident in promoting the use of HIA and investing in building capacity to undertake high quality HIAs. New findings about the value HIA stakeholders put on indirect impacts such as learning and relationship building suggest HIA has a role both as a technical tool that makes predictions of potential impacts of a policy, program or project and as a mechanism for developing relationships with and influencing other sectors. Accordingly when evaluating the effectiveness of HIAs we need to look beyond the direct impacts on decisions.

Characteristics of health impact assessments reported in Australia and New Zealand 2005-2009

Objective: To describe the use and reporting of Health Impact Assessment (HIA) in Australia and New Zealand between 2005 and 2009.

Copper Accumulation in Vineyard Soils in New Zealand

The main purposes of this research are to establish the extent and character of copper spray use in the viticulture industry in New Zealand; and to determine the level of copper accumulation nationally and in the main viticultural regions. The research also included pilot investigations of the storage of copper on different soil fractions and changes in nutrient status of vineyard soils with high copper concentrations. A questionnaire survey was completed by 124 growers from throughout the country. Copper sprays are still used in the majority of cases, but have either never been used or are no longer used in almost 30% of vineyards covered in the survey. Where copper is used, the load being applied to the vines each year varies widely, but the impression is that most growers are moderate in their use of copper. There are geographical patterns in use, and there is some evidence that newer vineyards, often in drier areas, are applying lower rates of copper, and less frequently. The maximum soil copper concentration recorded was 304 mg kg−1, with several samples in the range 150–260 mg kg−1. However, most of the sample concentrations were less than 75 mg kg−1. Of the 43 vineyards sampled, 36 showed significant elevation of total soil copper compared to the respective control concentrations. The other seven vineyard were low, or nil, users of copper. Most of the vineyards in the sample had a mean total soil copper concentration below 50 mg kg−1, but two vineyards were over 100 mg kg−1, and two more higher than 70 mg kg−1. The results showed that total soil copper in a vineyards is related to the number of years such sprays have been used, but there was no evidence of a link to basic soil properties. Overall, copper contamination of vineyard soils in New Zealand appears to be lower than levels reported from vineyards in other countries. However, there are grounds for monitoring soil copper levels more closely in all vineyards established more than about 40 years ago, especially in the more humid regions, and especially if they were planted on sites previously used for orcharding. The current trend to use less copper is welcome from the point of view of soil management, but vigilance will still be required, even under low use regimes.

Institutionalising health impact assessment:the New Zealand experience

This paper reviews the development of health impact assessment (HIA) in New Zealand to reveal factors which inhibited its effective institutionalisation until recently. It considers how differing views of HIA have affected the institutionalisation process, and assesses the longer-term prospects for HIA in policy- and project-level assessments. There is lack of a clear statutory mandate for considering health impacts under the Resource Management Act, although HIA and closely related health risk assessments have been carried out under other legislation, including the Biosecurity Act. Consequently, different understandings of the nature and purpose of HIA have developed, associated with different practitioner communities, often operating in isolation from other practitioners and the wider impact assessment community. The renewed effort to mobilise HIA has emphasised policy-level application in central government; the Ministry for Health now has an HIA Unit, and statutory recognition of the process is promised in the new Public Health Act.

What makes health impact assessments successful? Factors contributing to effectiveness in Australia and New Zealand

BackgroundWhile many guidelines explain how to conduct Health Impact Assessments (HIAs), less is known about the factors that determine the extent to which HIAs affect health considerations in the decision making process. We investigated which factors are associated with increased or reduced effectiveness of HIAs in changing decisions and in the implementation of policies, programs or projects. This study builds on and tests the Harris and Harris-Roxas’ conceptual framework for evaluating HIA effectiveness, which emphasises context, process and output as key domains.MethodsWe reviewed 55 HIA reports in Australia and New Zealand from 2005 to 2009 and conducted surveys and interviews for 48 of these HIAs. Eleven detailed case studies were undertaken using document review and stakeholder interviews. Case study participants were selected through purposeful and snowball sampling. The data were analysed by thematic content analysis. Findings were synthesised and mapped against the conceptual framework. A stakeholder forum was utilised to test face validity and practical adequacy of the findings.ResultsWe found that some features of HIA are essential, such as the stepwise but flexible process, and evidence based approach. Non-essential features that can enhance the impact of HIAs include capacity and experience; ‘right person right level’; involvement of decision-makers and communities; and relationships and partnerships. There are contextual factors outside of HIA such as fit with planning and decision making context, broader global context and unanticipated events, and shared values and goals that may influence a HIA. Crosscutting factors include proactive positioning, and time and timeliness. These all operate within complex open systems, involving multiple decision-makers, levels of decision-making, and points of influence. The Harris and Harris-Roxas framework was generally supported.ConclusionWe have confirmed previously identified factors influencing effectiveness of HIA and identified new factors such as proactive positioning. Our findings challenge some presumptions about ‘right’ timing for HIA and the rationality and linearity of decision-making processes. The influence of right timing on decision making needs to be seen within the context of other factors such as proactive positioning. This research can help HIA practitioners and researchers understand and identify what can be enhanced within the HIA process. Practitioners can adapt the flexible HIA process to accommodate the external contextual factors identified in this report.