Richard N. Cardozo

A theory of entrepreneurial opportunity identification and development

Abstract This paper builds on existing theoretical and empirical studies in the area of entrepreneurial opportunity identification and development. It utilizes Dubins [Theory Building, (second ed.). Free Press, New York, 1978.] theory building framework to propose a theory of the opportunity identification process. It identifies entrepreneurs personality traits, social networks, and prior knowledge as antecedents of entrepreneurial alertness to business opportunities. Entrepreneurial alertness, in its turn, is a necessary condition for the success of the opportunity identification triad: recognition, development, and evaluation. A theoretical model, laws of interaction, a set of propositions, and suggestions for further research are provided.

Mapping the university technology transfer process

Abstract Transfer of technologies from the universities to the private sector is increasingly regarded as playing a significant role in new business starts, growth of existing businesses, and new job creation. Further, there are monerous models describing the process of technology transfer. Some of the existing models represent this process as a linear progression of steps: from idea generation and technology development at the university, to patenting the technology and then establishing a university-private firm link through a formal search process. The process culminates in patent rights transfer. Other models describe technology transfer in terms of networking arrangements and emphasize not so much formal search as the role of long-term relationships between the two parties. Still other studies indicate that it is possible to combine the two approaches—formal search and informal networking arrangements—to ensure successful transfer. Business firms involved in transfer also may be classified into several groups. Transfer could occur between the university and an established firm, between the university and a recently created new venture, or transfer could result in the creation of a new company. Technology, for example, could be transferred to a large company that uses the transferred technology as a basis for just one of many product lines, or to a small firm that makes the transferred technology a cornerstone of its product strategy. Are there any differences among the transfer processes used when large or small firms are involved, or when technology is transferred to an existing company, or results in the creation of a new firm? To address these questions, we mapped the technology transfer processes of 23 different technologies developed at the University of Minnesota from 1983 to 1993. More than half of the technologies studied went to large companies and were used either to upgrade existing products or to extend existing product lines. In eight cases technologies were transferred to small firms. In three cases technologies were transferred to venture capital firms or intermediaries and had not been commercialized at the time the study was completed. In the rest of the cases new firms were created by the inventors/university scientists themselves and served as vehicles for marketing their inventions. None of the firms of the latter group have grown beyond a part-time employment opportunity for the inventors, and only one firm provided evidence that additional hiring would be necessary in the near future. Only four cases involved transfers of technologies that have been developed and patented by the university to firms that did not have any relationships with the university prior to the transfer. In these four cases the firms used some form of search strategy to find a needed technology. However, there is no evidence that any of the firms had a well-developed formal search procedure. In the overwhelming majority of cases some form of relationship existed between the university (or individual inventors) and the private firm prior to the transfer. These relationships ranged from long-term friendships and/or cooperation to such less involved forms as interaction at research seminars and university-sponsored events. Further, in four cases, the technologies were initially developed by private companies, whereas the universitys role was to assist in refinement or testing of the technology. The research yielded a number of additional findings that deserve further investigation and discussion. Specifically, the study did not provide any evidence that the successfully completed technology transfers made any substantial contribution to either new business creation or the generation of new jobs. This finding suggests that scholars and policy makers should proceed with caution before accepting a notion that new or high technology firms will have any direct economic impact. The study findings hold specific implications for entrepreneurial behavior and public policy. The “formal search and shopping” for a technology model suggests that both business and academic/government laboratories publicize, respectively, their requirements and offerings, and that opportunities for creative brokerage ought to exist. We found that in the majority of cases technology was transferred not through formal search, but through some prior relationships among individuals. This observation suggests that the ability to build extended networks of relationships not only within the business world but also with the university community is an important skill that owners and managers of the technology-based businesses need to possess. Entrepreneurs seeking to start businesses based on new technologies may need to reevaluate how much of their limited time to allocate to build and maintain networks and cooperative relationships, and how much time to shop for new technologies through formal channels. Further, public policy and the efforts of the university transfer agencies intended to facilitate transfer may need to shift their emphasis from facilitating “shopping” by organizing and/or paying for “publicity” (which is currently the major emphasis) to providing assistance in network building and relationship marketing efforts.

A MODEL OF THE ENTREPRENEURIAL OPPORTUNITY RECOGNITION PROCESS

The goal of this study is to propose a model of the entrepreneurial opportunity recognition process. A number of research propositions was generated based on the analysis of the available literature, and then validated by the analysis of in-depth cases of opportunity recognition that resulted in the creation of successful entrepreneurial ventures. The study indicates that entrepreneurial opportunities are discovered through recognition rather than purposeful search; prerequisites for successful opportunity discovery are a combination of entrepreneurial awareness, access to extended social networks, and prior knowledge of markets and customer problems; prior knowledge could exist due to work experience, personal, non-work related experiences and events, or due to relevant to these markets education. Further, opportunity recognition does not require an exceptional level of creativity, and is not likely to involve a prior knowledge of the ways to serve markets.

Product-market choices and growth of new businesses

Abstract The relationship between product-market strategies and the growth of new firms is incompletely understood. The lack of understanding reflects the absence of a conceptual framework that would explain why certain product-market strategies achieve specified goals more effectively than do others. Prior research links product and market strategy to business growth, but does not clearly separate product line choices from market choices, and provides little guidance with respect to the sequence in which product and market changes should be made. Richard Cardozo, Karen McLaughlin, Brian Harmon, Paul Reynolds, and Brenda Miller propose a “wave” model of product-market choice, which yields hypotheses they evaluate with data from a subsample of 120 firms drawn from a representative sample of new businesses. Results yield preliminary guidelines for product-market strategy for managers of fledgling businesses.

The symbiosis of entities in the social engagement network: The role of social ventures

Social entrepreneurship is increasingly recognized as a mechanism for creating social and economic value. By applying population ecology, resource dependency and resource-based view perspectives, this paper develops a conceptual model to provide greater insight into how social entrepreneurship ventures collaborate with other organizations in a network to fulfill resource requirements. Through this process social ventures address unmet social needs to create value which leads to the development and growth of individuals, communities, and regions. Using a large citys economic development actors involved in small business promotion as test cases, this exploratory study illustrates that social ventures effectively acquire resources from the primary social engagement network actors: corporations, governments, and other social ventures. The framework introduced in the paper provides a means by which to better understand the context in which relevant social engagement players in a network exist and the synergies that they can develop.

Perspective: experiential education in new product design and business development

We describe an experiential approach to teaching new product design and business development in a year-long course that combines intensive project work with classroom education. Our course puts together up to six teams of graduate students from management and engineering who work on projects sponsored by individual companies. Student teams work with faculty from multiple disciplines and personnel from the sponsoring companies. The year-long format and involvement with company personnel provide opportunities for students to gain hands-on experience in a real product development project. Time constraints, coupled with students’ determination to demonstrate what they can accomplish, stimulate teams to learn how to compress the design and development cycle. To help students generalize from their own projects to a wider universe of product design and business development phenomena, students participate continuously in constructive critiques of others’ projects; and in presentations, case discussions and workshops that help them learn about the product and business development process itself. This article describes course objectives, syllabus, projects, sponsors, faculty, students and our course administration. In an effort to move towards a “paperless” course, we have put as much of the course material as possible on the World Wide Web; relevant websites are referred to in the article. At the end of the course each team presents a prototype and a protoplan to the sponsoring company in a final report, which in many cases includes suggestions for the sponsor on how to improve its design and development process. Students’ positive evaluations, along with their comments, indicate that they are attaining their educational goals. Course projects have resulted in commercialized products, patents, continuing development projects in sponsoring companies, and placements for students. The course has generated public relations value for the units involved and for the university as a whole.

Implementing new business-to-business selling methods

AbstractTelemarketing (TM), National Account Management (NAM), and other new selling techniques are increasingly being adopted by industrial marketers to replace or augment face-to-face sales forces. Adoption of any of these techniques requires the firm to adjust its selling mix, which is the combination of personal selling techniques used by the firm to reach its customers. Adoption of new selling mixes offers substantial payoffs, but involves risks and problems. This article proposes an analytical framework, based on the experiences of 40 business-to-business marketers, to guide managers in successfully adopting a new selling mix. The utility of this framework is demonstrated by applying it to two firms. From this analysis, management guidelines are developed for adopting new selling mixes.

Risk return approach to product portfolio strategy

Abstract This article describes how a risk-return portfolio analysis, as originally developed in economics and finance, can be applied to product-line decisions. This approach uses direct estimates of return, and explicitly considers risk, or variation in return; most of the product portfolio models in use today forecast return by correlation, and lack explicit treatment of risk. The approach provides guidance for new product development activities as well as for allocating resources among a corporations existing product lines. The article explains how organizations can apply this approach to their own product portfolio decisions, and includes a detailed example of how one company used this model.

New selling methods are changing industrial sales management

Abstract Changes in the business environment require changes in selling methods, which, in turn, lead to changes in organizational structure. Industrial sales managers face a choice between seeing their jobs shrink around them or planning for these changes.

Proactive strategic partnerships: A new business markets strategy

States that firms in many industries are seeking strategic partnerships with suppliers, distributors and customers. Discusses Customer‐Linked Strategy (CLS), a type of partnership being used by some firms. Evaluates the advantages and disadvantages of CLS and specifies appropriate circumstances for adopting CLS, together with information on implementing the partnership. Considers the consequencesof CLS and finds that it is of great benefit to many firms. Recommends that those businesses not currently using the technique but whose situation is suited to the strategy should reconsider their action.