Richard N. Landers

Casual Social Games as Serious Games: The Psychology of Gamification in Undergraduate Education and Employee Training

Gameification (or, gamification) is becoming an increasingly popular technique to motivate learners, yet little theory or empirical evidence is available to support its use. In the present chapter, instructional design in relation to games and gameification is explored, including discussion of the psychological determinants of learning. The extant research literatures surrounding online social media, learning-by-testing, and goal-setting theory are then integrated in order to provide a scientific rationale for gameification. The resulting integrative theory of gameification in learning suggests that students may learn more by completing tests than they do when studying, that students can be motivated to complete such tests by offering them social rewards in the form of carefully designed virtual badges, and that these badges should be offered in an online social context which students find meaningful in order to motivate them to action. To examine this integrative theory, an online social network with gameification elements was created and deployed in a Psychology department at a major east coast university in order to motivate students to complete optional online multiple choice quizzes. The system was highly successful; 29% of participants opted to complete gameified optional multiple choice quizzes and on average reported those quizzes as fun, enjoyable, and rewarding. This proof-of-concept study is discussed in terms of its implications for both undergraduate education and employee training, including a list of current “best practices” regarding social game implementation.

Developing a Theory of Gamified Learning: Linking Serious Games and Gamification of Learning

Background and Aim Gamification has been defined as the use of characteristics commonly associated with video games in non-game contexts. In this article, I reframe this definition in terms of the game attribute taxonomy presented by Bedwell and colleagues. This linking is done with the goal of aligning the research literatures of serious games and gamification. A psychological theory of gamified learning is developed and explored. Conclusion In the theory of gamified learning, gamification is defined as the use of game attributes, as defined by the Bedwell taxonomy, outside the context of a game with the purpose of affecting learning-related behaviors or attitudes. These behaviors/attitudes, in turn, influence learning by one or two processes: by strengthening the relationship between instructional design quality and outcomes (a moderating process) and/or by influencing learning directly (a mediating process). This is contrasted with a serious games approach in which manipulation of game attributes is typically intended to affect learning without this type of behavioral mediator/moderator. Examples of each game attribute category as it might be applied in gamification are provided, along with specific recommendations for the rigorous, scientific study of gamification.

An Empirical Test of the Theory of Gamified Learning: The Effect of Leaderboards on Time-on-Task and Academic Performance

Background The theory of gamified learning provides a theoretical framework to test the impact of gamification efforts upon learner behaviors and attitudes, as well as the effect of these behavioral and attitudinal changes on learning. It does so by providing mediating and moderating processes linking specific game elements to learning outcomes. Aim This article links specific game elements common to leaderboards (conflict/challenge, rules/goals, and assessment) with a focal learner behavior, time-on-task, by exploring educational research on competition and psychological research on goal-setting theory. Method The mediating process of the theory of gamified learning is tested experimentally by assigning learners completing an online wiki-based project to a gamified version with a leaderboard or to a control version without a leaderboard. Leaderboard achievement was not tied to course grades. Results Random assignment to leaderboards supported a causal effect. Students with leaderboards interacted with their project 29.61 more times, on average, than those in a control condition. Bootstrapping was used to support the mediation of the effect of gamification on academic achievement by this amount of time. Conclusion The mediating process of the theory of gamified instruction is supported. Leaderboards can be used to improve course performance under certain circumstances.

A cautionary note on the effects of range restriction on predictor intercorrelations

The purpose of this research report is to highlight a unique set of issues that arise when considering the effects of range restriction in the context of estimating predictor intercorrelations. Three approaches are used to illustrate the issue: simulation, a concrete applied example, and a reanalysis of a meta-analysis of ability-interview correlations. The general conclusion is that a predictor intercorrelation can differ dramatically from the population value when both predictors are used in a composite that is used operationally for selection. The compensatory nature of a composite means that low scorers on one predictor can only obtain high scores on the composite if they obtain very high scores on the other predictor; this phenomenon distorts the correlation between the predictors.

Retesting After Initial Failure, Coaching Rumors, and Warnings Against Faking in Online Personality Measures for Selection

A large sample (N = 32,311) of applicants for managerial positions at a nationwide retailer completed a personality test online over the course of several years. A new type of faking was observed in their responses: the use of only extreme responses (all 1s and 5s), which is labeled blatant extreme responding (BER). An increase in BER over time was observed for internal but not for external applicants, suggesting the presence of a coaching rumor. A subsample of internal applicants chose to retake the test after initial failure. These individuals showed substantial increases in both test scores and rate of BER, with higher prevalence of faking at retest than the main sample. To reduce faking, an interactive warning was implemented one year after the initial administration. Differing patterns of faking were observed before and after warnings, allowing for an examination of warning effectiveness in the presence of a coaching rumor. Results suggest that faking increases over time as the coaching rumor spreads but that warnings deter this spread. Evidence suggests that faking is indeed a problem in real-world selection settings.

Gamification of task performance with leaderboards

The use of leaderboards is a common approach to the gamification of employee performance, but little is known about the specific mechanisms and mediating processes by which leaderboards actually affect employee behavior. Given the lack of research in this domain, this study proposes goal-setting theory, one of the most well-established motivational theories in psychology, as a framework by which to understand these effects. In this study, a classic brainstorming task is gamified with a leaderboard in order to explore this. Participants were randomly assigned to four classic levels of goal-setting (do-your-best, easy, difficult and impossible goals) plus a leaderboard populated with initials and scores representing identical goal-setting conditions. The presence of a leaderboard was successful in motivating participants to performance levels similar to that of difficult and impossible goal-setting, suggesting participants implicitly set goals at or near the top of the leaderboard without any prompting to do so. Goal commitment, a common individual difference moderator in goal-setting theory, was also assessed and behaved similarly in the presence of the leaderboard as when traditional goals were provided. From these results, we conclude that goal-setting theory is valuable to understand the success of leaderboards, and we recommend further exploration of existing psychological theories, including goal-setting, to better explain the effects of gamification. Goal-setting theory was offered as an explanatory framework for leaderboards.An experiment found addition of a leaderboard on a task increased performance.Leaderboards performed similarly to traditional difficult and impossible goals.Individual goal commitment moderated the success of leaderboards as with goals.Goal-setting and other psychological theories should be explored in gamification.

Enhancing instructional outcomes with gamification

BackgroundGamification, the use of game elements in non-game contexts, has become a popular technique to improve instructional outcomes in both organizational and educational contexts. In the organizational context, the Technology-Enhanced Training Effectiveness Model [TETEM] provides a framework to understand how technologies, like gamification, can effect change in various instructional outcomes. Specifically, application of TETEM suggests that gamification may not effect change in instructional outcomes when learner attitudes towards game-based learning and experience with video games are low. MethodIn this study, we test this model in the gamification context by assigning potential learners to read scenarios describing gamified instruction or traditional, PowerPoint instruction in a random order and assessing their training valence. ResultsOn average, participants anticipated greater value from gamified instruction, but as predicted by TETEM, this effect was moderated by both video game experience and attitudes towards game-based learning. Among potential learners with high experience and attitudes, gamification produces better outcomes than PowerPoint, but among potential learners with low experience and attitudes, gamification produces worse outcomes than PowerPoint. ImplicationsWe provide empirical support for TETEM and conclude that for gamification to be successful, the attitudes and experience of participants must be assessed and ensured before gamification is implemented. TETEM suggests new training technology can harm outcomes if not received well.Attitudes and experience with games may influence this for gamification.262 participants read scenarios describing gamified vs. PowerPoint instruction.Valence for gamified instruction was better than for PowerPoint, on average.Participants with poor attitudes and less experience anticipated greater value from PowerPoint.

Psychological Theory and the Gamification of Learning

Research on the gamification of learning currently lacks a sturdy theoretical foundation on which to build new knowledge. In this chapter, we identify and explore several theories from the domain of psychology to provide this foundation. This includes the theory of gamified instructional design, classic conditioning theories of learning, expectancy-based theories, goal-setting theory, and self-determination theory. For each theory (or family of theories), we describe the theory itself, relate it to gamification research, and identify the most promising future research directions given that basis. In exploring these theories, we conclude that gamification is not a “new” instructional technique per se but is instead a new combination and presentation of classic motivational techniques. This combination may provide unique value over other approaches, but this is an unresolved empirical question. We conclude by making specific recommendations for both gamification researchers and practitioners to best advance the study of gamification given this sturdy theoretical basis.

Validation of the Beneficial and Harmful Work-Related Social Media Behavioral Taxonomies: Development of the Work-Related Social Media Questionnaire

Although social media are increasingly used by employees during work, little is known about what employees are actually doing on social media or why. To remedy this key gap in the literature, a series of three studies were conducted. In Study 1, a qualitative critical incident study was conducted to develop a taxonomy of social media behaviors that are beneficial to work performance, along with a taxonomy of behaviors that are harmful. In Study 2, the Work-related Social Media Questionnaire (WSMQ) was developed to measure these behaviors. In Study 3, cross-validation and criterion-related validity evidence was collected on the WSMQ. Behaviors identified by employees as harmful to job performance were positively related to counterproductive work behaviors and negatively related to task, contextual, and adaptive job performance. Behaviors identified by employees as beneficial to job performance were generally unrelated to actual job performance. Thus, behaviors identified as harmful by employees were indeed harmful, but behaviors identified as beneficial were not beneficial. This suggests limited value in permitting access to social media by employees without a particular plan in place to utilize the features of social media productively.

How to Avoid the Dark Side of Gamification: Ten Business Scenarios and Their Unintended Consequences

The problems that may arise from gamification have been largely ignored by researchers and practitioners alike. At the same time, use of gamification in recruitment, onboarding, training, and performance management are on the rise in organizations as businesses turn toward technology to meet their objectives. This chapter investigates drawbacks of using elements of games in each of these applications through a series of scenarios describing different gamified interventions. For each scenario, a discussion follows regarding potential problems with the intervention, how psychological science may explain this, how these errors can be avoided, as well as future directions for gamification research. Employee motivation is noted as a critical concern in gamification, and classic theories of motivation are utilized to help explain why some interventions may fail to motivate desired behavior. For training design, a popular area for gamification, practitioners are urged to consider the intended training outcomes before designing a training program with gaming elements.