Richard Thorpe

Using Knowledge within Small and Medium-Sized Firms: A Systematic Review of the Evidence

This paper provides a systematic review of the literature on how small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) use and acquire knowledge. The review was undertaken as part of the Economic and Social Research Councils Evolution of Business Knowledge Programme. The paper describes the systematic review protocol and provides a detailed explanation of the methods used. From the review, it is evident that SME knowledge research concentrates primarily on the acquisition and use of knowledge, treating it as an asset that is transferred by routines. The findings suggest that research is focused in three main areas. First, on the influence and abilities of the entrepreneur to extract, use and develop knowledge resources. Secondly, on firm-wide systems and the social capital that facilitates knowledge exploration and exploitation. Thirdly, on the provision of knowledge and learning experiences through government policy. From a practical perspective, the review concludes that policies encouraging entrepreneurship and economic regeneration need to be more flexible and sensitive to the often complex contexts within which knowledge is used by SMEs. From a research perspective, and given the flexible, opportunity-oriented and often novel nature of SMEs identified in these studies, there is a need to consider the relational and embedded qualities of knowledge by which these characteristics are framed; qualities that resist conceptualization as some form of separable, material asset.

Entrepreneurial learning: a process of co‐participation

Applying social concepts to the social relations that the entrepreneur maintains, this research seeks to identify the impact of these relationships, and the learning that might result from them, on the decision‐making process. A social and conversational model of experiential learning is put forward, where learning and influence are seen to emerge as part of an ongoing negotiated process. This argument complements Kolbs “fundamentally cognitive” theory of experiential learning, by challenging the view that the learner should be viewed as an “intellectual Robinson Crusoe”, and stating that even when an individual reflects and theorises their thoughts have a social character. Data were collected using critical incident technique through one‐to‐one in‐depth interviews over several weeks. The paper goes some way to confirm the importance of networks in the business development process, helping further to define how networks exist. The learning identified, is understood therefore as part of an ongoing negotiated process within a complex network of domestic, voluntary, commercial and professional relations.

Rethinking Kolb's Theory of Experiential Learning in Management Education The Contribution of Social Constructionism and Activity Theory

This article seeks to critically evaluate Kolbs theory of experiential learning from social constructionist and activity theory perspectives. It is suggested that while experiential learning theory has been extremely influential and useful in management education it is rarely seen as problematic. The article goes on to argue that Kolbs experiential learning theory can be placed within the cognitive psychological tradition; a tradition that overlooks or mechanically explains the social, historical and cultural aspects of self, thinking and action. Activity theory is then described (but also drawing on more recent social constructionist perspectives) and offered as an alternative way of understanding these three aspects. Using this approach, experiential learning theory is reconceptualized with particular reference to the learning cycle and managerial identity. It is concluded that learning can be viewed as an argumentative and rhetorical process in which the manager acts as a practical author.

It's all action, it's all learning: action learning in SMEs

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to argue that action learning (AL) may provide a means of successfully developing small to medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs).Design/methodology/approach – The literature around SME learning suggests a number of processes are important for SME learning which similarity, it is argued, are encompassed in AL. AL may therefore offer a means of developing SME. This argument is then supported through the results of a longitudinal qualitative evaluation study conducted in the north‐west of England, which involved the use of AL in 100 SMEs.Findings – The paper finds that the discursive and critical reflection aspects of the set environment appeared to be of great utility and importance to the SMEs. Sets also had an optimum level of which helped them find “common ground”. Once common ground was established set members often continued to network and form alliances outside of the set environment. SME owner‐managers could discuss both personal and business. Finally, AL offered the ...

Creative Search and Strategic Sense-Making: Missing Dimensions in the Concept of Dynamic Capabilities

In this paper we discuss the role of managerial agency in creating and shaping dynamic capabilities. We argue that dynamic capability is a phenomenon that enables a deviation to take place from the knowledge that otherwise would have arisen cumulatively from experiential learning. In addition we argue that to create major changes in patterns of knowledge accumulation managers need to be purposefully and creatively engaged. Such agency is identifiable in two cognitive processes we call creative search and strategic sense-making. We show how these processes differ in respect to their temporal orientation and relationship to uncertainty and by adopting a process perspective we demonstrate how creative search, strategic sense-making and experiential learning are complementary. This notion of complementarity implies that these processes, notwithstanding their contrasting characteristics, coexist together and serve to offer an explanation for how knowledge progresses at a firm level. Variance is introduced into the framework proposed through the identification of factors that influence the coexistence of creative search and strategic sense-making. The argument developed is illustrated through the use of an emergent technology context.

Using repertory grids in management

It is now 15 years since the Journal of European Industrial Training published its first monograph on repertory grid technique (Volume 4 Number 2, 1980). Since that time many changes have occurred in both the use and the application of grids. Aims to bring the reader up to date with developments which have taken place in the application and analysis of repertory grid technique. Unlike the initial monograph, places greater emphasis on practicalities of completing a grid and the different types of analysis possible than on the applications of the grid. After encouragement from Roger Bennett, among others, this revised and expanded monograph capitalizes on the collaboration of the original author, Mark Easterby‐Smith, with Richard Thorpe and David Holman. Their combined experience of the theory and use of repertory grid technique updates the original monograph.

A framework for entrepreneurial learning: A tribute to Jason Cope

This paper explains Dr Jason Copes work on entrepreneurial learning, and illustrates his approach and how it can be applied to deepen understanding of, and practice in, entrepreneurship education. It begins with a biography of Cope, which summarizes his academic life and offers a timeline for his publications. This paper then explores his philosophical position, before dividing his research into three main phases. In the first, it examines and explains his early work into experiential learning; reflective learning; learning from crises and the role social influences play in entrepreneurial learning. In the second, developments stemming from his PhD are explored. Here, ideas in relation to entrepreneurial learning and the links he makes to transformative learning and double-loop learning are discussed. Finally, in the third part, Copes entrepreneurial learning framework is explained and key contributing concepts are introduced. This part examines how Copes theoretical framework was used to undertake research and subsequently to explain how entrepreneurs learn from failure. In the final sections of this paper, the practical implications of his contribution to entrepreneurship education are presented, in the contexts both of higher education and of the development of students, and then for entrepreneurs themselves.

Learning in owner-managed small firms: Mediating artefacts and strategic space

The authors focus on the way in which owner-managers in smaller firms improve their businesses through the creation of ‘strategic space’. The term ‘strategic space’ refers to the process by which owner-managers are able to access resources, motivation and capability to review existing practices. The starting point is the owner-managers human capital and their capacity to engage in critical reflection about their business. We highlight three concepts central to the creation of strategic space, first, social capital, which refers to the network relationships that provide access to a wide range of resources and information. Second, absorptive capacity, which describes the way in which organizational members identify, acquire and utilize knowledge from external sources. Third, mediating artefacts, which represent existing knowledge but also facilitate the translation and transformation of understanding within and between communities of practice. This process is essential to the renewal of knowledge and knowing within firms. The contribution this paper makes is to bring together these elements – human and social capital, absorptive capacity and mediating artefacts – to offer a conceptual model that illustrates the mechanism by which owner-managers create strategic space. This model provides a deeper understanding of the evolution of knowledge in smaller organizations.

The Characteristics of Performance Management Research — Implications and Challenges

There is now a growing interdisciplinary interest in organizational performance in all its manifestations (Neely and Waggoner, 1998). To date this interest has been sustained by the considerable attention the subject has been given by practitioners but more recently there has been a developing focus on the academic contributions that might be made to the field. […] [I]ncreasingly the notion of performance is being used as an integrating theme on postgraduate programmes to reflect ‘real world relevance’ and as way of integrating and balancing practically useful techniques (as used by managers and consultants), with theoretical constructs. This has moved the focus of study away from simply practice and more towards theory. We see this shift in emphasis as inevitable as academics will need to take a critical stance so that they can better understand and explore the theoretical and empirical bases on which many of the principles on which notions of performance rest — the ideas themselves, how they arose, how they might be developed and how they might be changed. This [chapter] attempts to locate the study of performance by using the same constructs used by researchers who have been attempting to categorize management. Having set out the results of this exercise we speculate on the ways the study of performance might change as interest increases.

Measuring a Business School’s Reputation:: Perspectives, Problems and Prospects

In recent years, there has been an unprecedented movement in many industries towards establishing explicit, transparent accounts of the performance and assets of institutions. The many industry monitors and league tables (e.g. Fortune 500) that are the most evident embodiments of this trend have, ever since their inception, been under the close scrutiny of industry commentators and academic observers alike (e.g. Fryxell and Wang, 1994). A recent area of academic debate and controversy involves the measurement of the reputations of business schools, where academics are vying with industry monitors and media in developing useful measures and establishing valid accounts of a business schools reputation. Given the ongoing debate on the subject and the limited progress made so far in this respect, this commentary article presents four principles of reputation research and measurement that may be used on a predictive basis to guide, frame and model future research into this area.