Rinaldo Poli

Spin forbidden chemical reactions of transition metal compounds. New ideas and new computational challenges

Many reactions of transition metal compounds involve a change in spin. These reactions may proceed faster, slower--or at the same rate as--otherwise equivalent processes in which spin is conserved. For example, ligand substitution in [CpMo(Cl)2(PR3)2] is faster than expected, whereas addition of dinitrogen to [Cp*Mo(Cl)(PMe3)2] is slow. Spin-forbidden oxidative addition of ethylene to [Cp*Ir(PMe3)] occurs competitively with ligand association. To explain these observations, we discuss the shape of the different potential energy surfaces (PESs) involved, and the energy of the minimum energy crossing points (MECPs) between them. This computational approach is of great help in understanding the mechanisms of spin-forbidden reactions, provided that accurate calculations can be used to predict the relevant PESs. Density functional theory, especially using gradient-corrected and hybrid functionals, performs reasonably well for the difficult problem of predicting the energy splitting between different spin states of transition metal complexes, although careful calibration is needed.

Understanding the reactivity of transition metal complexes involving multiple spin states

Abstract In coordination chemistry, many reactions involve several electronic states, in particular states of different spin. This phenomenon of ‘Multiple-State Reactivity’ has been recognized for some time, both for gas-phase reactions of ‘bare’ metal ions, and for transition metal complexes in solution. Until recently, however, much of the discussion of these systems has remained qualitative, because standard computational methods do not allow the location of the critical points for these processes, the Minimum Energy Crossing Points (MECPs) between states of different spin. Increased computational resources and new algorithms now enable MECPs to be located for large, realistic transition metal containing systems, yielding important new insight into the mechanisms of important reactions such as oxidative addition of CH bonds to metal centers and ligand association/dissociation processes. Several examples will be presented for inorganic, organometallic and bioinorganic reactions.

Mechanistic Insights into the Cobalt-Mediated Radical Polymerization (CMRP) of Vinyl Acetate with Cobalt(Iii) Adducts as Initiators

Over the past few years, cobalt-mediated radical polymerization (CMRP) has proved efficient in controlling the radical polymerization of very reactive monomers, such as vinyl acetate (VAc). However, the reason for this success and the intimate mechanism remained basically speculative. Herein, two mechanisms are shown to coexist: the reversible termination of the growing poly(vinyl acetate) chains by the Co(acac)2 complex (acac: acetylacetonato), and a degenerative chain-transfer process. The importance of one contribution over the other strongly depends on the polymerization conditions, including complexation of cobalt by ligands, such as water and pyridine. This significant progress in the CMRP mechanism relies on the isolation and characterization of the very first cobalt adducts formed in the polymerization medium and their use as CMRP initiators. The structure proposed for these adducts was supported by DFT calculations. Beyond the control of the VAc polymerization, which is the best ever achieved by CMRP, extension to other monomers and substantial progress in macromolecular engineering are now realistic forecasts.

A computational study of the olefin epoxidation mechanism catalyzed by cyclopentadienyloxidomolybdenum(VI) complexes.

A DFT analysis of the epoxidation of C(2)H(4) by H(2)O(2) and MeOOH (as models of tert-butylhydroperoxide, TBHP) catalyzed by [Cp*MoO(2)Cl] (1) in CHCl(3) and by [Cp*MoO(2)(H(2)O)](+) in water is presented (Cp*=pentamethylcyclopentadienyl). The calculations were performed both in the gas phase and in solution with the use of the conductor-like polarizable continuum model (CPCM). A low-energy pathway has been identified, which starts with the activation of ROOH (R=H or Me) to form a hydro/alkylperoxido derivative, [Cp*MoO(OH)(OOR)Cl] or [Cp*MoO(OH)(OOR)](+) with barriers of 24.9 (26.5) and 28.7 (29.2) kcal mol(-1) for H(2)O(2) (MeOOH), respectively, in solution. The latter barrier, however, is reduced to only 1.0 (1.6) kcal mol(-1) when one additional water molecule is explicitly included in the calculations. The hydro/alkylperoxido ligand in these intermediates is eta(2)-coordinated, with a significant interaction between the Mo center and the O(beta) atom. The subsequent step is a nucleophilic attack of the ethylene molecule on the activated O(alpha) atom, requiring 13.9 (17.8) and 16.1 (17.7) kcal mol(-1) in solution, respectively. The corresponding transformation, catalyzed by the peroxido complex [Cp*MoO(O(2))Cl] in CHCl(3), requires higher barriers for both steps (ROOH activation: 34.3 (35.2) kcal mol(-1); O atom transfer: 28.5 (30.3) kcal mol(-1)), which is attributed to both greater steric crowding and to the greater electron density on the metal atom.

Olefin Epoxidation by H2O2/MeCN Catalysed by Cyclopentadienyloxidotungsten(VI) and Molybdenum(VI) Complexes: Experiments and Computations

Compounds [Cp*(2)M(2)O(5)] (M = Mo, 1; W, 2) are efficient pre-catalysts for cyclooctene (COE) epoxidation by aqueous H(2)O(2) in acetonitrile/toluene. The reaction is quantitative, selective and takes place approximately 50 times faster for the W system (k(obs) = 4.32(9)x10(-4) s(-1) at 55 degrees C and 3x10(-3) M concentration for the dinuclear complex, vs. 1.06(7)x10(-5) s(-1) for the Mo system). The rate law is first order in catalyst and COE substrate (k = 0.138(7) M(-1) s(-1) for the W system at 55 degrees C), whereas increasing the concentration of H(2)O(2) slows down the reaction because of an inhibiting effect of the greater amount of water. The activation parameters for the more active W systems (DeltaH(double dagger) = 10.2(6) kcal mol(-1); DeltaS(double dagger) = -32(2) cal mol(-1) K(-1)) were obtained from an Eyring study in the 25-55 degrees C temperature range. The H(2)O(2)urea adduct was less efficient as an oxidant than the aqueous H(2)O(2) solution. Replacement of toluene with diethyl ether did not significantly affect the catalyst efficiency, whereas replacement with THF slowed down the process. The epoxidation of ethylene as a model olefin, catalysed by the [Cp*MO(2)Cl] systems (M = W, Mo) in the presence of H(2)O(2) as oxidant and acetonitrile as solvent, has been investigated by DFT calculations with the use of the conductor-like polarisable continuum model (CPCM). For both metal systems, the rate-limiting step is the transfer of the hydroperoxido O(alpha) atom to the olefin, in accordance with the first-order dependence on the substrate and the zero-order dependence on H(2)O(2) found experimentally in the catalytic data. The activation barrier corresponding to the rate-limiting step is 4 kcal lower for the W complex than for the corresponding Mo analogue (32.3 vs. 28.3 kcal mol(-1)). This result reproduces well the higher catalytic activity of the W species. The different catalytic behaviour between the two systems is rationalised by a natural bond orbital (NBO) study and natural population analyses (NPA). Compared to Mo, the W(VI) centre withdraws more electron density from the sigma bonding [O-O] orbital and favours, as a consequence, the nucleophilic attack of the external olefin on the sigma*[O-O] orbital.

Half-sandwich molybdenum(III) compounds containing diazadiene ligands and their use in the controlled radical polymerization of styrene

Abstract The reaction of CpMoCl2 with diazadiene ligands RNCHCHNR (R2dad) affords the corresponding paramagnetic complexes CpMoCl2(R2dad) (R=Ph, 1; p-Tol, 2; C6H3Pr2i-2,6, 3; and Pri, 4). All compounds have been characterized by EPR spectroscopy and have been investigated by cyclic voltammetry. They display one-electron oxidation and reduction processes, these being reversible or irreversible depending on the nature of R. The irreversibility of the reduction wave is due to a chemical follow-up process which consists of chloride loss from the reduced product. This phenomenon is suppressed in the presence of excess chloride in solution. An X-ray structure of 3 verifies the mononuclear nature of the compound and the chelating mode of the dad ligand, the MoN2C2 ring being essentially planar. The NC and CC bond distance pattern suggests the important contribution of an enediamido Mo(V) limiting form. In the presence of 1-bromoethylbenzene, complexes 1–4 catalyze the controlled/‘living’ radical polymerization of styrene. Complex 3 also leads to a controlled/‘living’ radical polymerization of styrene in the presence of AIBN (α,α-azoisobutyronitrile) as a radical generator. Therefore, this is the second example of a compound which is capable of controlling the styrene radical polymerization under both ATRP and SFRP conditions.

The Pt-Catalyzed Ethylene Hydroamination by Aniline: A Computational Investigation of the Catalytic Cycle

A full QM DFT study without system simplification and with the inclusion of solvation effects in aniline as solvent has addressed the addition of aniline to ethylene catalyzed by PtBr(2)/Br(-). The resting state of the catalytic cycle is the [PtBr(3)(C(2)H(4))](-) complex (II). A cycle involving aniline activation by N-H oxidative addition was found energetically prohibitive. The operating cycle involves ethylene activation followed by nucleophilic addition of aniline to the coordinated ethylene, intramolecular transfer of the ammonium proton to the metal center to generate a 5-coordinate (16-electron) Pt(IV)-H intermediate, and final reductive elimination of the PhNHEt product. Several low-energy ethylene complexes, namely trans- and cis-PtBr(2)(C(2)H(4))(PhNH(2)) (IV and V) and trans- and cis-PtBr(2)(C(2)H(4))(2) (VII and VIII) are susceptible to aniline nucleophilic addition to generate zwitterionic intermediates. However, only [PtBr(3)CH(2)CH(2)NH(2)Ph](-) (IX) derived from PhNH(2) addition to II is the productive intermediate. It easily transfers a proton to the Pt atom to yield [PtHBr(3)(CH(2)CH(2)NHPh)](-) (XX), which leads to rate-determining C-H reductive elimination through transition state TS(XX-L) with formation of the σ-complex [PtBr(3)(κ(2):C,H-HCH(2)CH(2)NHPh)](-) (L), from which the product can be liberated via ligand substitution by a new C(2)H(4) molecule to regenerate II. Saturated (18-electron) Pt(IV)-hydride complexes obtained by ligand addition or by chelation of the aminoalkyl ligand liberate the product through higher-energy pathways. Other pathways starting from the zwitterionic intermediates were also explored (intermolecular N deprotonation followed by C protonation or chelation to produce platina(II)azacyclobutane derivatives; intramolecular proton transfer from N to C, either direct or assisted by an external aniline molecule) but all gave higher-energy intermediates or led to the same rate-determining TS(XX-L).

Homolytic Bond Strengths and Formation Rates in Half‐Sandwich Chromium Alkyl Complexes: Relevance for Controlled Radical Polymerization

In the past decade, controlled/living radical polymerization (CRP) processes have seen a considerable surge of interest owing, in part, to their relevance to the accessibility of a variety of well-defined polymer structures (e.g. predetermined molecular mass, narrow molecular weight distribution). We have been interested in the one-electron reactivity of transition-metal complexes and its relevance in CRP. One way in which transition-metal complexes can be used to control radical polymerization is through a reversible deactivation. The growing radical chain is trapped by formation of a metal–carbon bond to yield a metal-capped polymer chain, which is a dormant organometallic species (Figure 1). We refer to this particular control mechanism as “organometallic radical polymerization” (OMRP). One of the outstanding challenges in this area is the possibility to control the polymerization of less reactive monomers (e.g. vinyl chloride, vinylidene dichloride, vinyl acetate), for which activation is made difficult by the relatively strong bonds established with common radical traps. Reasonable control for the radical propagation of poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc) has been achieved on the basis of another control mechanism (degenerative transfer, DT, based on the use of xanthates or dithiocarbamates). 4] Results obtained by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) have not been nearly as good, while good control was recently achieved in the presence of [Co(acac)2] (Mw/Mn as low as 1.1; acac = acetylacetonate). 9] Recent studies have shown that this process occurs either by DT or by OMRP, depending on the presence of additional ligands such as pyridine or water. 11]

Improved Preparations of Molybdenum Coordination Compounds from Tetrachlorobis(diethyl ether)molybdenum(IV)

The reduction of MoCl5 with metallic tin in diethyl ether provides a rapid and convenient entry to [MoCl4(OEt2)2] This compound can be transformed easily and in high yields into a variety of other useful synthons. The loss of ether in the solid state affords a new and reactive form of MoCl4. Treatment with THF, PMe3 or LiOtBu affords [MoCl4(THF)2], [MoCl4(PMe3)3] or [Mo(OtBu)4] in high isolated yields. Treatment with metallic tin in THF affords [MoCl3(THF)3] All of these reactions can be carried out under simple experimental conditions and represent significant improvements relative to previously reported syntheses of the same compounds.

Controlled radical polymerization of alkyl acrylates and styrene using a half-sandwich molybdenum(III) complex containing diazadiene ligands

Abstract The half-sandwich molybdenum(III) complex CpMoCl 2 ( i Pr 2 -dad) ( i Pr 2 -dad= i Pr–NCH–CHN– i Pr) proved to be an effective metal catalyst for the controlled radical polymerization of methyl acrylate, butyl acrylate, and styrene. In conjunction with an alkyl iodide [R–I: CH 3 CH(COOEt)I] as an initiator and in the presence or absence of Al(O– i -Pr) 3 as a co-catalyst, the molybdenum-based system gave polymers with narrow molecular weight distributions. The in situ addition of styrene to a macroinitiator of poly(methylacrylate) afforded an AB-type block copolymer.