Rivka Oxman

Think-maps: teaching design thinking in design education

A pedagogical framework for design learning and design teaching termed Think-Maps is introduced, presented and demonstrated. In this framework, domain knowledge becomes explicit as a significant component to be taught and transferred in design education. The Think-Maps framework proposes that by constructing a conceptual map that reflects ones thinking in a domain, we make explicit the knowledge learned. The learner constructs structured representations of concepts and their relationships to other concepts and fills these structures with the content of the specific design domain or design task. This resulting structured representation of knowledge can later be accessed and expanded in additional processes of design thinking. Web-Pad - a computational tool that implements these ideas is presented and illustrated. Web-Pad is used for organizing and representing conceptual maps of a specific domain. The Think-Maps framework and the Web-Pad tool are demonstrated in an educational environment.

Precedents in design: a computational model for the organization of precedent knowledge

A computational model for the organization of design precedent knowledge is developed. The model is composed of distinct chunks of knowledge called design stories. A formalism for the design story is proposed which represents the linkage between design issue, concept and form in designs. Stories are structured in memory according to a semantic network. The lexicon of the semantic network acts as a memory index. The memory structure and indexing system are demonstrated to enhance search and to support cross-contextual browsing and exploration in the precedent library. The approach is demonstrated in a pilot design aid system in the task domain of early conceptual design in architecture.

Design by re-representation: a model of visual reasoning in design

Abstract The conception of design as a sequential process of description and redescription in the development of designs is presented. Rerepresentational theory (RRH) is introduced and the cognitive mechanisms which enable re-representation in design are explicated. A theory of re-representation and multiple representations in design is proposed. The concept of adaptation developed in CBR is exploited to formalize transformations in the re-representation process. An empirical research was constructed to study the cognitive abilities which underlie the creative phenomena of re-representation in design adaptation. On the basis of the findings of the experiment, a model of design re-representation is developed and presented. The main concepts of the model, multiple representation and re-representation, are shown to provide a powerful basis for the understanding of creative behavior in design.

Educating the designerly thinker

This paper presents a hypothesis about design education that is framed within and derived from cognitive theories of learning. The relevance of design thinking and cognitive approaches to the development of pedagogical approaches in design education is presented and discussed. A conceptual model for design education that emphasizes the acquisition of explicit knowledge of design is proposed. The acquisition of knowledge is achieved through the explication of cognitive structures and strategies of design thinking. The explication process is constructed by exploiting a representational formalism, and a computational medium which supports both the learning process as well as the potential re-use of this knowledge. Finally, an argument is presented that the measure of learning, generally equated with the evaluation of the product of designing, can instead be based upon evaluating learning increments of acquired knowledge.

Prior knowledge in design: a dynamic knowledge-based model of design and creativity

Abstract The incorporation of precedents into a present design situation by adaptation, restructuring and reformulation depends upon processes of typification and generalization. The function of prototypes as a characteristic form of generalized and structured knowledge in design is described. A precedent-based design model employing memory-based reasoning is proposed. It is argued that typological concepts can serve as a matching level between situation types and solution types. In such an approach both the organization of structured knowledge and the mechanisms of matching to prior knowledge such as cross-indexing and analogy appear to be of seminal importance. A memory-based reasoning process in routine, innovative and creative design is postulated. This is based on concepts of dynamic and episodic memory. Relevant work in the fields of memory organization, machine learning and analogical reasoning is considered with respect to its significance to the field of knowledge-based design.

The thinking eye: visual re-cognition in design emergence

Abstract Emergence has been widely recognized as a significant phenomenon of visual reasoning in design. Despite its centrality as a cognitive phenomenon, research in emergence currently lacks a comprehensive theoretical foundation. A broadened view of design emergence that adds to the perceptual phenomenon of shape emergence in reflecting the way the design domains are conceptualized is proposed. An expanded theory of emergence in which visual cognition plays an important role is presented. Beginning with an attempt to broaden the perceptual perspectives of shape emergence, the process of cognitive emergence is defined. The duality of related perceptual and cognitive components provides a working basis for conceptualizing visual emergence in design. Antithetical to the idea of accidental emergence, it is proposed that emergence is guided and anticipated. We claim that it is the re-cognition of visual shapes and images in design that enables emergence. This kind of guidance function in emergence is termed ‘anticipated emergence’. We demonstrate how high-level domain knowledge of visual forms can be accommodated as cognitive content, and how this can contribute to establishing a cognitive basis for emergence. An empirical experiment from the domain of architecture is presented.

Performance-Based Design: Current Practices and Research Issues

In view of current developments in the theory and technology of digital design, potential novel directions for environments that support performance-based design are beginning to emerge. The field of performance-based design is defined through an analysis of current work in the field. Various models of performance-based architectural design are presented and discussed. On the basis of this analysis, key concepts and issues in the application of performance-based design in architecture are defined and certain research directions for the development of new approaches are presented. Finally we propose a new approach termed: Performative Design. Performative Design suggests that in creating simulation environments for performance-based architectural design both generative and evaluative capabilities can be integrated within performance-based simulations. The potential of performance-based simulation as a model of performance-based design is explored through a case study from an experimental digital design studio. Implication of this work on future research directions in the field is explicated.

Refinement and adaptation in design cognition

Refinement and adaptation are proposed as two cognitive styles in design. These two concepts are defined and elaborated. Refinement is associated with generic design and adaptation is associated with case-based design. An approach to computational modelling of design processes is developed. A method based on this approach is employed for the study of refinement and adaptation and for their formalization. The study is elaborated in the area of architectural design.

Design media for the cognitive designer

Abstract Work on media for design which are responsive to the cognitive processes of the human designer are introduced as a paradigm for research and development. Design media are intended to support the cognitive nature of design and, particularly, the exploitation of design knowledge in computational environments. Basic theoretical assumptions are presented which underlie the development of design media. A central assumption is that designers share common forms of design knowledge which can be formalized, represented, and employed in computational environments. Generic knowledge is proposed as one such seminal form of design knowledge. We then develop a cognitive model which relates to the internal mental representations, strategies and mechanisms of generic design. The paper emphasizes the theoretical foundations of design media. This theoretical discussion is then exemplified through case studies presenting current research for the support of visual cognition in design. We introduce an approach to design schema as a visual form of generic design knowledge. Secondly we present a conceptual framework for the support of schema emergence in visual reasoning in design media. Finally, some implications of schema emergence in design collaboration are presented and discussed.

The Mind in Design: A Conceptual Framework for Cognition in Design Education

Publisher Summary This chapter considers the role of cognitive content of design and design thinking as a basis for developing an educational approach. Various design researchers discussed cognitive approaches in design, and the role of knowledge and representations as a cognitive design-thinking tool. Most of these studies are related directly to design and design thinking rather than to the learning task in design learning and design education. Irrespective of the specific design domain, traditional educational models in design education are based upon the replication of professional-task performance. The measure of learning is generally equated with the evaluation of the product of designing rather than on what might be considered a learning increment. The cognitive properties of design learning have never been the subject of design education. As a consequence, there presently exists a lack of educational theories of learning that function as an underpinning of design education. It is now possible to demonstrate that the derivation of design knowledge through constructive processes, in itself, provides a medium for design learning. This chapter suggests that special design learning environments must be developed to enhance and supplement formal education and foster personal development in design learning.Publisher Summary This chapter considers the role of cognitive content of design and design thinking as a basis for developing an educational approach. Various design researchers discussed cognitive approaches in design, and the role of knowledge and representations as a cognitive design-thinking tool. Most of these studies are related directly to design and design thinking rather than to the learning task in design learning and design education. Irrespective of the specific design domain, traditional educational models in design education are based upon the replication of professional-task performance. The measure of learning is generally equated with the evaluation of the product of designing rather than on what might be considered a learning increment. The cognitive properties of design learning have never been the subject of design education. As a consequence, there presently exists a lack of educational theories of learning that function as an underpinning of design education. It is now possible to demonstrate that the derivation of design knowledge through constructive processes, in itself, provides a medium for design learning. This chapter suggests that special design learning environments must be developed to enhance and supplement formal education and foster personal development in design learning.