Rk Ngugi

Innovations in climate risk management: protecting and building rural livelihoods in a variable and changing climate

We argue that more effective management of climate risk must be part of the response of the international agriculture community to the double crisis of persistent poverty and a changing climate. The most promising opportunities to adapt to climate change involve action on shorter time scales that also contributes to immediate development challenges. Climate risk management (CRM) combines systematic use of climate information, and technology that reduces vulnerability and policy that transfers risk. The cost of climate risk comes both through damaging extreme events and through forfeited opportunity in climatically-favorable years. Effective CRM therefore involves managing the full range of variability, balancing hazard management with efforts to capitalize on opportunity. We discuss several innovations for managing climate risk in agriculture, which have not yet been fully mainstreamed in international agricultural research-for-development. First, effective rural climate information services enable farmers to adopt technology, intensify production, and invest in more profitable livelihoods when conditions are favorable; and to protect families and farms against the long-term consequences of adverse extremes. Second, information and decision support systems synthesize historic, monitored and forecast climate information into forms that are directly relevant to institutional decisions (planning, trade, food crisis response) that impact farmer livelihoods. Third, innovations in index-based insurance and credit overcome some of the limitations of traditional insurance, and are being applied to pre-financing food crisis response, and to removing credit constraints to adopting improved technology. We present a typology of CRM interventions around the concept of dynamic poverty traps.

The Somali and the Camel: Ecology, Management and Economics

Abstract Camel production is a major source of livelihood for the pastoralists in the drier parts of Kenya. The majority of these camels are raised under traditional management systems that are not well understood by both researchers and policy makers. This paper looks at the ecological, management and socio-economic aspects of camel production among the Somali community of Moyale District, northern Kenya. Besides a thorough literature search, a survey was conducted to collect data on these aspects. The results show that the Somali pastoralists have evolved rational strategies for adapting to the prevailing production conditions of fluctuating forage amounts, and inadequate water and mineral salts. Some of the strategies include herd splitting, watering intervals and salt supplementation. Several aspects of the production system indicate the patoralists’ inability to relate their management practices to certain phenomena. A few of these are restriction of initial colostrum milk supply to calves and calf mortality, irregular supply of mineral salts, and breeding practices that tend to cause inbreeding. Inadequate veterinary services due to lack of access to drugs and veterinarians constitute major constraints to camel production. The results indicate the need to educate the pastoralists on management practices that would improve camel productivity, as there is potential for improvement using simple techniques.

Mountain big sagebrush browse decreases dry matter intake, digestibility, and nutritive quality of sheep diets.

A metabolism study evaluated the influence of increasing quantities (0-30% dry matter basis) of mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana Rydb. Beetle) on dry matter intake and in vivo digestibility of wether diets. Diets consisted of hand-harvested, coarse-ground and frozen current years growth of mountain big sagebrush leaves and twig tips mixed with chopped native grass hay. Dry matter intake decreased from 93 to 23 g dry matter day-1 kg metabolic weight-1 and in vivo dry matter digestibility from 59 to 0% with increasing levels of sagebrush in the diet. With increasing levels of sagebrush in the diet, water, lignin, and nitrogen contents increased in the diet, but decreased in the dung, while fiber components decreased in both the diet and dung. Total nitrogen intake decreased from 1.58+/-0.041 to 0.406+/-0.070 g day-1 kg metabolic weight-1, and nitrogen retention decreased from 0.80 g day-1 kg metabolic weight-1 with no sagebrush to a slight loss of nitrogen with 30% sagebrush in the diet. Mountain big sagebrush was not readily consumed by wethers when fed together with grass; as low as 10% sagebrush in the diet seems to adversely influence intake and digestibility. Therefore, when other more favorable forages are not available, sheep and other ruminants with similar physiological responses to mountain big sagebrush may not meet their nutrient requirements through increased sagebrush consumption.

Climate forecast information: the status, needs and expectations among smallholder agro-pastoralists in Machakos district, Kenya

The potential use of seasonal climate forecasts in farm and resource management has been studied in a number of cultural contexts around the world. Many of these studies reveal difficulties that smallholders encounter in accessing, interpreting and applying forecasts for their own benefit. This study looked at the awareness of and usage of climate forecast information in central Kenya in the aftermath of the 1997/98 El Nino event. Household surveys were conducted in Machakos District, Kenya, in January 2001. Retrospective and concurrent awareness and application of seasonal forecast information was assessed for 240 households across a range of agro ecological zones. The results show high degree of awareness and use of forecasts. Farmers discussed both actual and potential application of forecasts for both above-normal and below-normal rainfall. The influence of the El Nino tendency to increase the rainfall as in the case of 1997/98 El Nino was clear from their emphasis on strategies to mitigate the impacts of above-or below-normal rainfall. Applications of information in both crop and livestock management are documented. Constraints still exist, such as interpretation of information, relevance of the variables forecast to the management decisions of concern, confidence in the forecasts, and timely and affordable access to resources such as seeds. We suggest that collaborative efforts between the forecast providers and the users of information may be directed towards addressing these constraints. For instance in case of abnormal phenomenon such as droughts or floods, forecasts can be closely followed by early warning campaigns with clear guidelines of how to prepare, distributed through the FM radio in local languages order to abate human suffering.

The influence of water availability on pastoralist's resource use in Mwingi and Kitui districts in Kenya

Abstract Understanding where pastoral livestock grazing takes place and how water availability and distribution influences resource use, is critical in planning and management of arid and semi-arid lands. This study was carried out in Mwingi and Kitui districts in Eastern Kenya. Semi-structured questionnaires were used for data collection for five months. Watering points were established through cluster sampling by considering each administrative sub-location with the help of topographical maps. Three ethnic communities, namely , the Akamba, Oroma and Somali, utilize resources in the area. The distribution of dry season water in the area influence the distances livestock herds traveled from their homelands. There was a significant difference between number of wells and the number of households, with an overall mean number of five to eight households per well. The population of goats and camels was highest for the area, and that they walked longer and their watering frequency was low. However, diseases, predators and frequent droughts occasioned animal’s losses, with goats having the highest death (6.0%) and birth (44.8%) rates. The dry season water availability may explain why livestock routes changed over the seasons and highlight the importance and ubiquity of common utilization of the range by these communities. Therefore, common rights of access prevail, although the control and organization of shallow wells is the responsibility of the Akamba ‘well owner’. Water constraints and property right issues in the study area limit exploitation of the resources for livestock production. This paper highlights the need to integrate water development and improved livestock management in the arid and semi-arid areas to reduce poverty.

Traditional Range Condition and Trend Assessment: Lessons from Pokot and Il Chamus Pastoralists of Kenya

Abstract This paper provides the results of a case study of some traditional range management methods of the Pokot and Il Chamus pastoralists of northwestern Kenya. The study focused on the factors used in monitoring and evaluating range condition and range condition trend, and seasonal range suitability to grazing by these communities. It is clear that these pastoralists have an intimate traditional and cultural attachment to resources at their disposal. They have, over time, devised techniques that ensure their survival under the highly vagarious environments; they are cognizant of changes and correlations in their rangelands, but may not understand causality. The study demonstrates that there are fundamental differences in the way these pastoral communities monitor and assess rangelands, compared to the western-oriented range scientists. For instance, pastoralists use livestock performance and ecological parameters as important indicators of range condition, while range scientists use plants. The results of this study support the theory of complementarity of modern scientific knowledge and traditional pastoral knowledge in pastoral development.

Seasonal botanical and chemical composition of sheep and goat diets on a common range in eastern Africa

The botanical and chemical composition, intake and digestibility of local sheep (Ovis aries) and goat (Capra hirtus) diets were evaluated over the wet (growing) and dry (dormant) seasons. Diet botanical composition was related to the vegetation composition on the range. Commiphora riperia and Acacia tortilis were the most dominant tree species, while Duosperma kilimandscharicum and Premna hildebrandtii were the most dominant shrub species. Enteropogon macrostachyus, Cenchrus ciliaris and Chloris roxburghiana were the most abundant grass species, while Brepharis integriifolia, Commelina benghalensis and Macrotylomma axillare were the most dominant forb species. Grasses increased towards the end of the wet season and the beginning of the dry season, while the forbs decreased. Eragrostis caespitosa, Cenchrus ciliaris, Eragrostis superba, Enteropogon macrostachyus and Themeda triandra were the most dominant grass species in sheep diets during both seasons, accounting for over 82% of the diet. Acalypha fruticosa, Grewia similis and G. bicolor were the most important browse species in goat diets in both seasons, while Eragrostis caespitosa and E. superba were the most common grass species during both seasons. Overall, goat diets comprised 81% browse, 17% grass and 2% forbs during the wet season; and 82% browse, 15% grass and 3% forbs during the dry season. Whilst the goat diets had higher (P < 0.05) Crude Protein (CP) content than sheep diets during both seasons, the sheep diets were lower in lignin content than goat diets during the wet season. Overall, the goat diets were lower in Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF) and Acid Detergent Fibre (ADF) than sheep diets during both seasons. There was no difference (P < 0.05) in digestibility between the two animal species. However, it was higher (P < 0.05) during the dry than the wet season. Although sheep and goats are commonly herded together in east African rangelands, they have differing abilities to utilise forages. These differences must be taken into consideration in grazing management decisions, and selected grazing areas should be able to cater for the forage requirements of both species.

The Socio-economic and Ecological Impacts of Small-scale Irrigation Schemes on Pastoralists and Drylands in Northern Kenya

Abstract Northern Kenya, as in other sub-Saharan arid and semi-arid regions, has faced challenges related to the prevailing socio-economy, ecology and polity in the last quarter of last century. In some of these areas, pastoralists have been settled on the peri-urban fringes of towns and have been exposed to flood-retreat cultivation; a culture that has been traditionally practised by the riverine Bantu communities. From the late 1960s these pastoralists started irrigation agriculture with assistance from the government and nongovernmental organisations. The outcome has been the mushrooming of irrigation schemes along rivers. This paper looks at the development of small-scale irrigation schemes and their sustainability. It also analyses their socio-economic and ecological effects on pastoral households and the drylands, taking Garissa District as a case. Interviews, a questionnaire and existing literature on irrigation schemes were used to collect data. Logistic regressions were carried out to assess the socio-economic effects of irrigation on the pastoral households. The results show that irrigation farming plays a supplementary role in pastoral economies, takes away child labour from pastoralism and reduces pastoral mobility. The implication is that irrigation farming in arid areas does not seem to offer a long-term sustainable economic livelihood.

Effect of Balanites glabra canopy cover on grass production, organic matter and soil moisture in a southern Kenyan rangeland

A study was undertaken in Kenyas southern savanna rangelands to determine the seasonal effect of Balanites glabra canopy cover on aboveground grass biomass, grass species composition, soil organic matter and soil moisture content. The study was conducted during the period June to December 1999 in order to capture both the dry and wet season effects. The grass biomass in the sub-canopy zone (2-4m from tree trunk) was found to be significantly higher than in the mid-canopy (0-2m from tree trunk) and open grassland zones (4-6m from tree trunk) during the dry season. However, the difference between the sub-canopy and the open grassland was not significant during the wet season, implying that the role of a tree canopy in enhancing grass biomass is greater during the dry than the wet season. Variations in percent grass species composition from the mid-canopy to the adjacent open grassland were observed, indicating that while B. glabra canopy cover favours certain grass species, other species find the micro-climatic conditions under the canopy unfavourable. Soil organic matter in the mid-canopy zone was significantly higher than in the sub-canopy and adjacent open zones during both dry and wet season. Although the sub-canopy zone exhibited significantly higher soil moisture content than the mid-canopy and open grassland zones during the dry season, the difference between the sub-canopy and the adjacent open grassland during the wet season was not significant, suggesting that the tree canopy influence on soil moisture is more pronounced in the dry than the wet season.

A Review of African Pastoral Production Systems: Approaches to Their Understanding and Development

Abstract In this paper we examine African pastoral production systems mainly from a socio-economic viewpoint. By and large, we find that this economy is consistent with general economic principles. All pastoral practices are rational based on the difficult environment and the cardinal objectives of subsistence and survival. We then argue that the implication of this in terms of pastoral development in its correct sense is to introduce technologies that are built on, among others, principles of flexibility, diversity and the perceptions of the people concerned: the pastoralists. The post-modern thinking is not to reorganise the structures of pastoral production but to understand them with a view to enhancing and complementing them.