Rob Q. Cuthrell

RETHINKING THE STUDY OF LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AMONG HUNTER-GATHERERS IN NORTH AMERICA

Abstract There has been little movement to systematically incorporate the study of indigenous landscape management practices into the method and theory of hunter-gatherer research in North American archaeology, despite a growing interest in this topic. The purposes of this article are twofold. One is to address why, until quite recently, archaeologists have been reluctant to engage in the current debate about the scale and ecological impact of these practices, particularly anthropogenic burning. We argue that this stems from a long tradition of viewing hunter-gatherers as passive, immediate-return foragers, as well as from the daunting methodological challenges of identifying landscape management activities using archaeological data. Our second purpose is to explore how archaeologists can make significant contributions to our understanding of past resource management practices through the creation of new kinds of collaborative, interdisciplinary eco-archaeological programs. Based on the current work of scholars in archaeological and environmental disciplines, as well as on our own implementation of such an approach in central California, we discuss the importance of maintaining mutual relationships with local tribes, the challenges of coordinating multiple data sets, and the process of rethinking our analytical methods and temporal scales for undertaking hunter-gatherer studies.

Anthropogenic Burning on the Central California Coast in Late Holocene and Early Historical Times: Findings, Implications, and Future Directions

Abstract In this final paper, we summarize the results of the eco-archaeological project, address five research questions concerning anthropogenic burning on the central California coast in Late Holocene and early historical times, and outline plans for future research.

Anthropogenic burning and the Anthropocene in late-Holocene California

This paper examines the hypothesis that human landscape modifications involving early agriculture contributed to greenhouse gas emissions in preindustrial times, a proposal that has significant implications for the timing of the Anthropocene era. In synthesizing recent papers that both advocate and challenge this hypothesis, we identify a major bias in the ongoing debate, which focuses on the land clearance practices of agrarian people, with insufficient consideration of a diverse range of hunter-gatherer societies who regularly utilized landscape-scale burning for various purposes. Employing California as a case study, we examine how the exclusion of hunter-gatherers from this debate may have shortchanged estimates of human biomass burning in preindustrial times. We also suggest that human population size may be a poor proxy for the degree of land clearance and anthropogenic burning, and we describe how previous approaches to these questions may have underplayed the importance of variation in the timing and magnitude of depopulation in different regions of the Americas.

Archaeobotanical Evidence for Indigenous Burning Practices and Foodways at CA-SMA-113

Abstract On the central California coast, the low incidence of lightning fires, coupled with a relatively predictable regional vegetation succession pattern, leads to the expectation that in the absence of regular anthropogenic burning, the landscape would have been dominated by dense woody shrubland and forest cover with few plant food resources. Assessment of historical vegetation change in the Quiroste Valley research area supports this hypothesis. Archaeobotanical research at site CA-SMA-113 indicates that during the late Holocene (ca. cal AD 1000–1300), site inhabitants relied heavily on grassland seed foods, producing archaeobotanical assemblages much like those in contemporaneous interior central California sites. The CA-SMA-113 assemblage also contains several culturally or ecologically fire-associated plants in proportions higher than would be expected in the absence of anthropogenic burning. The CA-SMA-113 wood charcoal assemblage is composed mostly of taxa that are compatible with low intensity fire, in sharp contrast to the fire-susceptible trees and shrubs that dominate the landscape today. A synthetic interpretation of the CA-SMA-113 botanical data supports the hypothesis of frequent anthropogenic landscape burning around Quiroste Valley during the late Holocene.

Phytolith Evidence for a Grass-Dominated Prairie Landscape at Quiroste Valley on the Central Coast of California

Abstract Phytoliths are microscopic particles of silica formed in many plant taxa, particularly grasses. To better understand the extent of grass-dominated vegetation and the utilization of grasses by indigenous peoples in Quiroste Valley on the central coast of California, we used phytolith analysis of soil columns collected on the valley floor and columns collected within late Holocene archaeological site CA-SMA-113, located within the valley. Surface soil phytolith content in all soil columns is greater than 0.75 percent, much higher than normal for grassland in California. High phytolith content indicates extensive grass cover in the valley for several hundred to thousands of years, and cannot be explained by historical land use practices. The phytolith content–depth relationship of non-midden columns within the archaeological site mirrors the pattern observed for off-site soils; midden columns exhibit high variability at very small scales and consistently greater phytolith content below 35 cm than soils. Phytolith content of excavated ash features was highly variable; several features exhibited very high grass phytolith content. Phytolith evidence suggests there was considerable indigenous management of vegetation in Quiroste Valley; frequent burning was likely required to maintain grass-dominated grassland. Phytolith analysis is a useful tool to routinely include in archaeological investigations in California.

Natural Resources, Geomorphology, and Archaeology of Site CA-SMA-113 in Quiroste Valley Cultural Preserve, California

Abstract Interpreting archaeological and paleoecological data with respect to indigenous landscape management practices requires a framework describing the natural resources, history of landscape development, and lifeways in the area under study. With frequent anthropogenic burning, we predict that the landscape around Quiroste Valley would have supported a varied and reliable mixture of plant and animal resources, and people living there would have had access to seasonal resources in different vegetation communities throughout much of the year. Geomorphological research indicates that the Quiroste Valley floor developed during the Holocene and has been stable for the last several thousand years. Results of archaeological research at site CA-SMA-113 suggest that inhabitants consumed a wide range of biotic resources and occupied the site during most of the year. They participated in regional economies by trading the raw materials for shell bead manufacture and possibly Monterey chert. Results of archaeological research at CA-SMA-113 are consistent with cultural developments reported at other local sites in the late Holocene (ca. AD 1000–1775).

Population Genetic Structure of California Hazelnut, An Important Food Source for People in Quiroste Valley in the Late Holocene

Abstract California hazelnuts (Corylus cornuta var. californica) are abundant in the archaeological record of site CA-SMA-113 in Quiroste Valley Cultural Preserve, and hazel management on the Central Coast was recorded in late 18th century Spanish accounts. However, this species is currently absent from Quiroste Valley proper and rare in the watershed, though it is locally common elsewhere in the Santa Cruz Mountains. Because high California hazelnut abundance is associated with frequent fire regimes, we believe that its current low abundance could be due to fire suppression enforced in the region for the past two hundred years. We sequenced nuclear microsatellites from ten populations of California hazelnuts to test the hypothesis that this species has experienced demographic changes in response to changing climate and land management practices. We found that all populations exhibited high levels of genetic variation and negative population growth consistent with large population sizes in the past with some decline over time. We also found subtle patterns of geographic structure suggesting that Quiroste Valley and neighboring Butano may have been important refugia habitats during past climate warming events. These results provide an important foundation demonstrating that population genetic approaches can be applied to eco-archaeological research on indigenous landscape management and set the stage for future work using genetics to reveal further details of the demographic history of Quiroste Valley hazelnut populations.

Across a Great Divide: Continuity and Change in Native North American Societies, 1400-1900. LAURA SCHEIBER and MARK MITCHELL, editors. 2010. Amerind Studies in Archaeology, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. ix + 342 pp.

might justifiably ask if, absent Taylor, a similar paradigm shift would have taken hold sooner without him. The answer could possibly be yes, given the nascent functionalist trends of the times and with a less-confrontational advocate. Another major theme in many of these chapters relates to Taylor the man, including his formal education at Hotchkiss, Yale, and Harvard, German POW experiences, outside interests, personal relationships, idiosyncrasies such as having barrels of fresh Maryland oysters delivered to him in unimaginably remote field locations, parsimonious dealings with hired help, and his frequently troubled relationships with students and colleagues. Regarding the latter, there are often contradictory depictions of his personality. With many people (especially students and occasionally fellow faculty) he could be tyrannical, volatile, and hypercritical. Others, however, experienced a warmer, more encouraging side. My personal experiences with Taylor are another illustration of his positive side. Early in my graduate studies I was warned by fellow students never to take a course or seminar from him. After disregarding that advice, I found him to be one of the most stimulating figures of my academic development. This climaxed in the early 1970s when he summoned me to suggest that I consider him to chair my doctoral committee. Perhaps some of this may demonstrate that erudition tempered with a degree of fear can be an effective pedagogical tool.