Rob Schoonen

First language and second language writing: The role of linguistic knowledge, speed of processing, and metacognitive knowledge

In this study the relative importance of linguistic knowledge, metacognitive knowledge, and fluency or accessibility of this linguistic knowledge in both first language (L1; Dutch) and second language (L2; English) writing was explored. Data were collected from 281 grade 8 students. Using structural equation modeling, the relative importance of the three components was studied and compared across L1 and L2 writing. The results showed that the fluency measures were correlated with overall writing performance in both L1 and L2. However, when compared to linguistic knowledge resources, these fluency measures turned out to have no additional value in predicting L1 or L2 writing performance. L2 writing proficiency turned out to be highly correlated with L1 writing proficiency, more than with either L2 linguistic knowledge or the accessibility of this knowledge.

Linguistic knowledge, processing speed, and metacognitive knowledge in first- and second-language reading comprehension: A componential analysis

The authors report results of a study into the role of components of first-language (L1; Dutch) and second-language (L2; English) reading comprehension. Differences in the contributions of components of L1 and L2 reading comprehension are analyzed, in particular processing speed in L1 and L2. Findings indicate that regression weights of the L1 and L2 components are different. Although correlations between most processing speed components and reading comprehension are substantial, there are no unique contributions to the explanation of either L1 or L2 reading comprehension when linguistic and metacognitive knowledge are accounted for. In addition, L1 reading comprehension is shown to have a large contribution to L2 reading comprehension, supporting theories of L1-L2 transfer of reading skills. Results are discussed from a developmental perspective.

Roles of linguistic knowledge, metacognitive knowledge and processing speed in L3, L2 and L1 reading comprehension A structural equation modeling approach

In this article we present an analysis of the relationship between L3 reading comprehension and its constituent skills for bilingual Dutch students for whom English is a third language(L3) compared to monolingual Dutch students for whom English is a second language(L2). An analogous analysis is made for their Dutch reading comprehension, Dutch being their L2 and L1 respectively. Participants are 13/14 year-old secondary school students. The point of departure in the analyses is a regression model in which reading proficiency is decomposed into three types of constituent components: linguistic knowledge(vocabulary and grammar), speed of processing linguistic knowledge(lexical access and sentence comprehension), and metacognitive knowledge(of text characteristics and strategies for reading and writing). Using structural equation modeling, we determined the contribution of constituent skills to Dutch L2 and L1, and English L3 and L2 reading comprehension. The results showed that, despite differences between the two groups in Dutch and English reading comprehension, no differences between the groups were found in the pattern of regression weights on the three types of constituent skills. Possible implications of these findings are discussed.

Generalizability of writing scores: an application of structural equation modeling

The assessment of writing ability is notoriously difficult. Different facets of the assessment seem to influence its outcome. Besides the writer’s writing proficiency, the topic of the assignment, the features or traits scored (e.g., content or language use) and even the way in which these traits are scored (e.g., holistically or analytically) may contribute to the writer’s score. In this article, the effect of these facets is estimated in a generalizability study using variance analytic techniques. A structural equation modeling (SEM) approach is used to estimate the variance components in the writing scores. Eighty-nine grade 6 students (aged 11-12 years) wrote four essays, each of which was scored by five raters using two scoring methods (i.e., holistically and analytically) for two traits (i.e., Content and Organization, and Language Use). Analyses of these ratings showed that the generalizability of writing scores and the effects of raters and topics are very much dependent on the way the essays are scored and the trait that is scored. The overall picture is that writing tasks contribute more to the score variance than raters do.

Facets of Speaking Proficiency.

This study examined the componential structure of second-language (L2) speaking proficiency. Participants—181 L2 and 54 native speakers of Dutch—performed eight speaking tasks and six tasks tapping nine linguistic skills. Performance in the speaking tasks was rated on functional adequacy by a panel of judges and formed the dependent variable in subsequent analyses (structural equation modeling). The following independent variables were assessed separately: linguistic knowledge in two tests (vocabulary and grammar); linguistic processing skills (four reaction time measures obtained in three tasks: picture naming, delayed picture naming, and sentence building); and pronunciation skills (speech sounds, word stress, and intonation). All linguistic skills, with the exception of two articulation measures in the delayed picture naming task, were significantly and substantially related to functional adequacy of speaking, explaining 76% of the variance. This provides substantial evidence for a componential view of L2 speaking proficiency that consists of language-knowledge and language-processing components. The componential structure of speaking proficiency was almost identical for the 40% of participants at the lower and the 40% of participants at the higher end of the functional adequacy distribution (n = 73 each), which does not support Higgs and Clifford’s (1982) relative contribution model, predicting that, although L2 learners become more proficient over time, the relative weight of component skills may change.

The assessment of deep word knowledge in young first and second language learners

The assessment of so-called depth of word knowledge has been the focus of research for some years now. In this article the construct of deep word knowledge is further specified as the decontextualized knowledge of word meanings and word associations. Most studies so far have involved adolescent and adult second language learners. In this article, we extend the focus to younger first and second language learning children in primary school in the Netherlands. A well-established test format involving word associations has been adapted for this younger target group and the feasibility of assessing deep word knowledge in primary school children is evaluated empirically. The results showed that the test provides a reliable and efficient method of assessing the childrens vocabulary knowledge. Evidence of validity was obtained from a concurrent definition task, and from an analysis of the scores in terms of language background, which is known to be associated with different levels of vocabulary knowledge.

Linguistic skills and speaking fluency in a second language

This study investigated how individual differences in linguistic knowledge and processing skills relate to individual differences in speaking fluency. Speakers of Dutch as a second language (N = 179) performed eight speaking tasks, from which several measures of fluency were derived such as measures for pausing, repairing, and speed (mean syllable duration). In addition, participants performed separate tasks, designed to gauge individuals’ second language linguistic knowledge and linguistic processing speed. The results showed that the linguistic skills were most strongly related to average syllable duration, of which 50% of individual variance was explained; in contrast, average pausing duration was only weakly related to linguistic knowledge and processing skills.

Second language fluency: speaking style or proficiency? Correcting measures of second language fluency for first language behavior

In second language (L2) research and testing, measures of oral fluency are used as diagnostics for proficiency. However, fluency is also determined by personality or speaking style, raising the question to what extent L2 fluency measures are valid indicators of L2 proficiency. In this study, we obtained a measure of L2 (Dutch) proficiency (vocabulary knowledge), L2 fluency measures, and fluency measures that were corrected for first language behavior from the same group of Turkish and English native speakers (N = 51). For most measures of fluency, except for silent pause duration, both the corrected and the uncorrected measures significantly predicted L2 proficiency. For syllable duration, the corrected measure was a stronger predictor of L2 proficiency than was the uncorrected measure. We conclude that for L2 research purposes, as well as for some types of L2 testing, it is useful to obtain corrected measures of syllable duration to measure L2-specific fluency.

Automatization in second-language acquisition: what does the coefficient of variation tell us?

Segalowitz and Segalowitz distinguish between “speedup” (mean reaction time [RT] and mean standard deviation of responses in an RT task decrease to the same degree) and “automatization” (mean standard deviation decreases more than mean RT). The coefficient of variation, which is the standard deviation divided by the mean RT, decreases in the case of automatization while remaining unchanged in the case of speedup. We present data that are collected in two studies. The first one is a longitudinal study spanning 2 years and comprising four RT tasks, both in second language (L2) English and first language Dutch (N > 200). The second study is an English L2 word training study. Students (N = 41) performed a lexical decision task before and after training. Convincing evidence for automatization was not found in either study. The main problems in testing the Segalowitz and Segalowitz hypothesis is that gains in knowledge itself and gains in processing it cannot be adequately disentangled in the RT tasks currently used, characterized by a speed–accuracy trade-off. Although conceptually skill acquisition can be distinguished from knowledge accumulation, in reality, knowledge accumulation forms part of skill acquisition because, in real L2 learning, exposure to new words goes hand in hand with exposure to words encountered previously.

Efficacy of Two Different Types of Speech Therapy for Aphasic Stroke Patients.

The influence of two different types of language therapy was investigated by assigning 32 patients to three groups: 10 patients were treated with a Systematic Therapy program for Auditory Comprehension Disorders (group 1), 11 patients received conventional stimulation therapy (group 2), and the other 11 patients received no treatment at all (group 3). Language recovery in the three groups was examined with a test battery consisting of two parts: Part I consisted of 3 subtests for auditory comprehension, which were also used as practice materials in the treatment program given to the patients of group 1; Part II contained 8 tests for auditory comprehension, reading comprehension, and oral expression, the items of which were not used as practice materials in either of the two treated groups. Although the influence of age, time post onset, and severity of the receptive disorder were controlled by multiple regression analysis, it was found that the differences between the three treatment conditions were far from significant on almost all evaluation tests of Part II, as well as on the evaluation tests of Part I. On the basis of these results it was concluded that neither the Systematic Therapy program for Auditory Comprehension Disorders nor the conventional stimulation therapy had any clear effect on the recovery process of the treated patients in groups 1 and 2. Some possible reasons for the failure to demonstrate significant differences in language gains between the three therapeutic conditions are discussed.