Robbe Van Beers

Modeling the propagation of light in realistic tissue structures with MMC-fpf: a meshed Monte Carlo method with free phase function.

Monte Carlo methods commonly used in tissue optics are limited to a layered tissue geometry and thus provide only a very rough approximation for many complex media such as biological structures. To overcome these limitations, a Meshed Monte Carlo method with flexible phase function choice (fpf-MC) has been developed to function in a mesh. This algorithm can model the light propagation in any complexly shaped structure, by attributing optical properties to the different mesh elements. Furthermore, this code allows the use of different discretized phase functions for each tissue type, which can be simulated from the microstructural properties of the tissue, in combination with a tool for simulating the bulk optical properties of polydisperse suspensions. As a result, the scattering properties of tissues can be estimated from information on the microstructural properties of the tissue. This is important for the estimation of the bulk optical properties that can be used for the light propagation model, since many types of tissue have never been characterized in literature. The combination of these contributions, made it possible to use the MMC-fpf for modeling the light porapagation in plant tissue. The developed Meshed Monte Carlo code with flexible phase function choice (MMC-fpf) was successfully validated in simulation through comparison with the Monte Carlo code in Multi-Layered tissues (R2 > 0.9999) and experimentally by comparing the measured and simulated reflectance (RMSE = 0.015%) and transmittance (RMSE = 0.0815%) values for tomato leaves.

Effect of ultrasonic homogenization on the Vis/NIR bulk optical properties of milk

The size of colloidal particles in food products has a considerable impact on the products physicochemical, functional and sensory characteristics. Measurement techniques to monitor the size of suspended particles could, therefore, help to further reduce the variability in production processes and promote the development of new food products with improved properties. Visible and near-infrared (Vis/NIR) spectroscopy is already widely used to measure the composition of agricultural and food products. However, this technology can also be consulted to acquire microstructure-related scattering properties of food products. In this study, the effect of the fat globule size on the Vis/NIR bulk scattering properties of milk was investigated. Variability in fat globule size distribution was created using ultrasonic homogenization of raw milk. Reduction of the fat globule size resulted in a higher wavelength-dependency of both the Vis/NIR bulk scattering coefficient and the scattering anisotropy factor. Moreover, the anisotropy factor and the bulk scattering coefficients for wavelengths above 600 nm were reduced and were dominated by Rayleigh scattering. Additionally, the bulk scattering properties could be well (R(2) ≥ 0.990) estimated from measured particle size distributions by consulting an algorithm based on the Mie solution. Future research could aim at the inversion of this model to estimate the particle size distributions from Vis/NIR spectroscopic measurements.

Dependent scattering in Intralipid® phantoms in the 600-1850 nm range

The effect of dependent scattering on the bulk scattering properties of intralipid phantoms in the 600-1850 nm wavelength range has been investigated. A set of 57 liquid optical phantoms, covering a wide range of intralipid concentrations (1-100% v/v), was prepared and the bulk optical properties were accurately determined. The bulk scattering coefficient as a function of the particle density could be well described with Twerskys packing factor (R(2) > 0.990). A general model was elaborated taking into account the wavelength dependency and the effect of the concentration of scattering particles (R(2) = 0.999). Additionally, an empirical approach was followed to characterize the effect of dense packing of scattering particles on the anisotropy factor (R(2) = 0.992) and the reduced scattering coefficient (R(2) = 0.999) of the phantoms. The derived equations can be consulted in future research for the calculation of the bulk scattering properties of intralipid dilutions in the 600-1850 nm range, or for the validation of theories that describe the effects of dependent scattering on the scattering properties of intralipid-like systems.

Flexible tool for simulating the bulk optical properties of polydisperse spherical particles in an absorbing host: experimental validation

In this study, a flexible tool to simulate the bulk optical properties of polydisperse spherical particles in an absorbing host medium is described. The generalized Mie solution for Maxwells equations is consulted to simulate the optical properties for a spherical particle in an absorbing host, while polydispersity of the particle systems is supported by discretization of the provided particle size distributions. The number of intervals is optimized automatically in an efficient iterative procedure. The developed tool is validated by simulating the bulk optical properties for two aqueous nanoparticle systems and an oil-in-water emulsion in the visible and near-infrared wavelength range, taking into account the representative particle sizes and refractive indices. The simulated bulk optical properties matched closely (R2 ≥ 0.899) with those obtained by reference measurements.

Apple ripeness detection using hyperspectral laser scatter imaging

A hyperspectral laser scatter imaging (HLSI) system based on a supercontinuum laser in combination with a monochromator has been developed for contactless and non-destructive measuring the ripeness of Braeburn apples. Reflectance images were obtained by a CCD camera at 91 different wavelengths ranging from 550 nm to 1000 nm and transformed into reflectance profiles. A linear function was fitted to the logarithm (log10) of the extracted profiles, resulting in an intercept and a slope. These two parameters were then correlated with apple ripeness parameters such as firmness and soluble solids content (SSC) measured by the reference, destructive methods. Preliminary results showed the potential of slope and intercept to be used as a ripeness indicator. Moreover, during fruit ripening, the new HLSI measurement technique clearly showed the degradation of chlorophyll over time.

Evolution of the bulk optical properties of bovine muscles during wet aging

The bulk optical properties (BOP) of two bovine muscles were studied in the 500nm to 1850nm wavelength range. Over a two-week period of wet aging, the BOP of the biceps femoris (BF) and longissimus lumborum (LL) were determined and related to moisture content, tenderness and cooking loss. The absorption by myoglobin and reduced scattering coefficient were higher in the BF compared to the LL. The scattering anisotropy factor was relatively high (>0.95 for LL), representing dominant forward scattering. Two-toning effects in the BF could be attributed to significant scattering differences, as no differences in absorption properties were observed. During wet aging, the anisotropy factor decreased, while tenderness increased. It was hypothesized that this might be related to proteolysis of cytoskeletal proteins. The results show the potential use of BOP to monitor tenderization and the cause of color differences in beef muscles. Moreover, this information could be used to develop and optimize optical sensors for non-destructive meat quality monitoring.

Chemometrics and hyperspectral imaging applied to assessment of chemical, textural and structural characteristics of meat

Spectroscopy in the visible near-infrared spectral (Vis-NIRS) range combined with imaging techniques (hyperspectral imaging, HSI) allows assessment of chemical composition, texture, and meat structure. The use of HSI in the meat and food industry has observed a significant growth in the last decade, yet its use for assessment of meat it is not optimal yet. The application of HSI for assessment of meat is reviewed with focus on its ability to capture meat unique chemical and structural characteristics. While HSI is widely used for assessment of chemical composition, a limited number of evidences on its ability to handle the effect of different sources of variation on the assessment is found. The use of spatially resolved spectroscopy has been able to detect structural information related to animal background, muscle type, rigor process and ageing. Similarly the use of texture features seem to capture unique characteristics of meat.