Robert A. Cook

Wildlife Trade and Global Disease Emergence

The global trade in wildlife provides disease transmission mechanisms that not only cause human disease outbreaks but also threaten livestock, international trade, rural livelihoods, native wildlife populations, and the health of ecosystems. Outbreaks resulting from wildlife trade have caused hundreds of billions of dollars of economic damage globally. Rather than attempting to eradicate pathogens or the wild species that may harbor them, a practical approach would include decreasing the contact rate among species, including humans, at the interface created by the wildlife trade. Since wildlife marketing functions as a system of scale-free networks with major hubs, these points provide control opportunities to maximize the effects of regulatory efforts.

Movements and location at sea of South American sea lions (Otaria flavescens)

This study examined the foraging locations of lactating female and pre-breeding adult male South American sea lions Otaria flavescens in the Patagonian continental shelf, south-west Atlantic ocean. Research on females included the diving pattern, and was conducted during the 1994–98 breeding seasons in five northern and central Patagonian rookeries. Twenty females were satellite-tracked using the Argos system and yielded 1558 locations at sea. Satellite transmitters were also deployed on two adult males tracked for a total of 94 days ( n = 364 locations) before the onset of the 1999 breeding season. Foraging trips for both sexes were confined to the temperate waters of the Patagonian continental shelf although males travelled greater distances than females, and arrived close ( c. 80 km) to the edge of the shelf. Females from the same rookery dispersed widely and locations at sea often overlapped. Individual differences were apparent between coastal and pelagic animals. Trips lasted a mean of 3.4 days ( sd = 1.3, n = 115 trips). Mean travel distance per trip was 206 km ( sd = 117 km, maximum 864 km, n = 115 trips). Females reached further distances by travelling faster rather than by extending the duration of trips. Consistent with the shallow continental shelf, 65% of 75 087 dives recorded for nine animals were in the range of 2–30 m. Males alternated periods on the coast with trips to sea lasting a mean of 5.7 days ( sd = 3.0, n = 8 trips). Mean travel distance exceeded 591 km (1 sd = 301 km, n = 8 trips). Results are consistent with sex differences reported from diet studies. Locations overlap with the summer operation of shelf fisheries targeting species that are also part of the sea lion diet.

What Does It Mean to Successfully Conserve a (Vertebrate) Species

The conservation of species is one of the foundations of conservation biology. Successful species conservation has often been defined as simply the avoidance of extinction. We argue that this focus, although important, amounts to practicing conservation at the “emergency room door,” and will never be a sufficient approach to conserving species. Instead, we elaborate a positive definition of species conservation on the basis of six attributes and propose a categorization of different states of species conservation using the extent of human management and the degree to which each of the attributes is conserved. These states can be used to develop a taxonomy of species “recovery” that acknowledges there are multiple stable points defined by ecological and social factors. “With this approach, we hope to contribute to a new, optimistic conservation biology that is not based on underambitious goals and that seeks to create the conditions under which Earths biological systems can thrive.

HEALTH EVALUATION OF FREE-RANGING AND SEMI-CAPTIVE ORANGUTANS (PONGO PYGMAEUS PYGMAEUS) IN SABAH, MALAYSIA

Baseline data on health of free-ranging wildlife is essential to evaluate impacts of habitat transformation and wildlife translocation, rehabilitation, and reintroduction programs. Health information on many species, especially great apes, is extremely limited. Between 1996 and 1998, 84 free-ranging orangutans captured for translocation, underwent a complete health evaluation. Analogous data were gathered from 60 semi-captive orangutans in Malaysia. Baseline hematology and serology; vitamin, mineral and pesticide levels; and results of health evaluations, including physical examination, provide a baseline for future monitoring. Free-ranging and semi-captive orangutans shared exposure to 11 of 47 viruses. The semi-captive orangutans had significantly higher prevalence of antibodies to adenovirus (P<0.0005) and rota (SA 11) virus (P<0.008). More free-ranging than semi-captive animals had antibodies to Japanese encephalitis virus (P<0.08) and foamy virus (P=0.05). Exposure to parainfluenza and langat viruses was detected exclusively in semi-captive animals and exposure to sinbis virus was only found in free-ranging orangutans. There was evidence of exposure to respiratory syncytial virus, coxsackie virus, dengue virus, and zika virus in both groups. Ebstein-Barr virus was ubiquitous in both groups. Prevalence of antibodies against mumps virus changed from 0% in 1996 to 45% in 1998. No antibodies were detected to many important zoonotic viral pathogens, including herpesvirus and hepatitis virus. Prevalence of Balantidium coli and Plasmodium pitheci infections and exposure to mycobacterium was higher in the semi-captive animals. Differences in exposure to pathogens between the groups may be due to environmental factors including differences in exposures to other species, habitat quality, nutritional status, and other potential stressors. Differences in health parameters between captive and free-ranging orangutans need to be considered when planning conservation areas, translocation procedures, and rehabilitation protocols. Because survival of the orangutan is linked to animal and ecosystem health, results of this study will assist wildlife conservation programs by providing baseline health information.

Applications of veterinary medicine to in situ conservation efforts

Wildlife conservation efforts are increasingly faced with declining, overcrowded or fragmented populations, environmental contamination, and the introduction of new species of either competitors or pathogens. These efforts are coming under increased public scrutiny in their attempt to balance human social and economic needs with those of wildlife. The integration of veterinary medicine as part of a multidisciplinary approach to conservation can assist in the successful planning, implementation and evaluation of conservation projects. Beyond the role of immobilizing animals, veterinarians can contribute to assessing and monitoring the health of wild populations, and can train others in modern approaches to working with and caring for wildlife.

Effectiveness of Mosquito Traps in Measuring Species Abundance and Composition

Abstract Mosquito species abundance and composition estimates provided by trapping devices are commonly used to guide control efforts, but knowledge of trap biases is necessary for accurately interpreting results. We tested the hypothesis that commercially available traps (Mosquito Magnet–Pro, the Mosquito Magnet–X) would be significant improvements over the CDC Miniature Light Trap with respect to abundance, species diversity, and measures of recruitment in a wooded area of the Bronx Zoo in New York City, NY. The Mosquito Magnet–Pro collected significantly more mosquitoes (n = 1,117; mean per night, 124 ± 28.3) than the CDC Miniature Light Trap (n = 167; mean per night, 19 ± 5.5). The Simpson’s diversity index was greatest for the Mosquito Magnet–Pro. A CDC light trap from a simultaneous surveillance project was located 15 m away and used as a control trap to test for significant differences in mosquito counts on nights with or without the experimental traps. There were no significant differences between nights, indicating the test traps did not recruit beyond 15 m. The traps differed significantly in abundance, but they had similarly limited sampling areas. Measured differences in abundance were independent of differences in diversity. This study highlights how differences between traps might affect species abundance and composition estimates.

Health Evaluation of Free-Ranging Humboldt Penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) in Peru

Abstract As part of ongoing ecological studies of Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) at Punta San Juan, Ica Department, Peru, health surveys were conducted in November 1992, 1993, and 1994. In the three surveys, 98 birds in total were handled for examination, and blood was collected for laboratory analysis from 90 of these birds. All birds seemed to be in good condition. Body weights of females were significantly lower in 1994 than in the other years. Fleas (Parapsyllus humboldti) and ticks (Ornithodoros amblus) were found on the penguins and in their nests. Females had significantly higher plasma calcium and phosphorus levels, and they had lower weights than males. No other differences were found between the sexes. Hematology, plasma chemistries, and plasma mineral levels varied between years. Positive antibody titers for Chlamydophila psittaci (62%), avian adenovirus (7%; 1994 only), paramyxovirus-2 (7%; 1993 only), and Salmonella Pullorum (7%) were found. Plasma chemistry and mineral levels differed between individuals testing positive vs. negative on serologic tests for avian adenovirus and Salmonella Pullorum. Serologic tests for antibodies to avian influenza A virus, avian encephalomyelitis virus, infectious bronchitis virus, avian reovirus, duck viral enteritis virus, equine encephalitis (eastern, western, and Venezuelan) viruses, infectious bursal disease virus, infectious laryngotracheitis virus, Aspergillus sp., and paramyxovirus-1 and -3 were negative. All chlorinated pesticide and polychlorinated biphenyl analyses were below detectable limits.

ORAL TREATMENT OF AVIAN LEAD INTOXICATION WITH MESO-2,3-DIMERCAPTOSUCCINIC ACID

Abstract The efficacy of meso-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) (succimer) in treating avian lead intoxication was studied in a retrospective, nonrandomized, longitudinal study. Nineteen birds with moderate to high blood lead concentration and neurologic signs compatible with lead toxicity were treated with DMSA (30 mg/kg p.o., b.i.d.; n = 15) for a minimum of 7 days. In cases with severe neurologic signs, DMSA was supplemented with a single dose of edetate calcium disodium (<50.0 mg/kg of body weight i.m.; n = 4). Blood lead concentrations were measured two or more times (before and after treatment). Median blood lead concentration decreased (87%), neurologic signs were resolved, and there were no apparent adverse secondary effects.

Coraco-clavicular joint: normal variant in humans. A radiographic demonstration in the human and non-human primate

The coraco-clavicular joint is a true synovial joint that may become painful in some patients after trauma. Among the descriptions of this entity is the assertion that the coraco-clavicular joint is routinely seen in gorillas and gibbons. We undertook to assess the incidence of this variant among gorillas, gibbons, and other non-human primates. All available radiographs of large primates performed at the International Wildlife Conservation Park/Brox Zoo (IWCP) over the past 10 years were reviewed by a musculoskeletal radiologist (human radiology). All radiographs were taken during the normal clinical care of the non-human primate population of the IWCP and are a part of each animals clinical record. Eighty-one non-human primate radiographs were suitable for study as they contained the region of interest. The 81 radiographic examinations included 14 different species of non-human primates. The coraco-clavicular joint was seen in 4 out of 9 silver-leaf langur, 2 out of 8 lowland gorilla, and in 1 out of 6 white-handed gibbon. In all non-human primate cases where the coraco-clavicular joint occurred, it was bilateral. In 1 out of 8 mandrill, there were very wide distal clavicular ends that articulated both with the coracoid and with the acromion. The coraco-clavicular joint differs from an ossified coracoclavicular ligament. The radiographic appearance is characteristic and is found in both humans and some non-human primate species. It may rarely become painful following trauma. When symptomatic in humans, resection of this anomalous articulation is curative.

Comparison of Injectable Versus Oral Enrofloxacin Pharmacokinetics in Red-Eared Slider Thirties, Trachemys scripta elegans

ABSTRACT Three male and three female red-eared slider turtles, Trachemys scripta elegans, were given an intramuscular (IM) injection of enrofloxacin (5 mg/kg body weight). Blood was obtained from a peripheral vein, and plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin were measured at 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, 36, and 48 hr post injection. After a period of six weeks, the same animals were given oral doses of enrofloxacin (10 mg/kg body weight). Blood was obtained and plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin were measured at 1, 2, 5, 8, 12, 24, 36, 48, 72 hr post oral dosing. The highest mean concentrations of enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin were 6.28 μg/ml 2 hr and 0.42 μg/ml 7.4 hr after IM injection and 3.44 μg/ml 5 hr and 0.35 μg/ml 6 hr after oral administration. The mean apparent elimination half-life of enrofloxacin was 17.6 hr after IM injection and 32.8 hr after oral administration. The half-life for ciprofloxacin was 28.4 hr post IM administration and 59.6 hr post-oral admi...