Robert B. Schafer

Food safety: An application of the health belief model

Abstract The safety of the food supply is a growing health concern in the United States. This makes it important to determine what food safety actions people usually take and what factors predict these actions. The present analysis examines the application of the health belief model to food safety. Randomly selected adults in a midwestern state responded to a mailed questionnaire asking their attitudes and behaviors concerning food safety. The findings provided evidence that actions were being taken to assure the safety of food. These actions centered on information seeking, food preparation, and food purchase. Factors that predicted food safety actions were derived from the health belief model. These included the perception that unsafe food is a personal health threat, the perception that one could do something about the threat (self-efficacy), and the motivation to maintain good health. Interaction effects of self-efficacy with perceived threat were examined. Those who feel a personal threat and believe they can do something about it are more likely to engage in food safety behavior. In addition, the sociodemographic factors of age, gender and household size are related to food safety behavior.

Equity and depression among married couples.

This study examines the relationship between equitylinequity and depression among married partners. The respondents are 333 married couples (666 respondents) from a midwestern state who were selected in a random sample based on population concentration. Equitylinequity is examined as it occurred in the performance of five family roles-cooking, housekeeping, provider, companion, and parent. It is predicted that (1) marriage partners who feel inequity in the performance of marital roles willfeel more distress than partners who perceive equity, and (2) marriage partners who perceive that inequity is in theirfavor willfeel less distress than those who perceive that inequity is not in their favor. The findings support the first hypothesis and provide directional but not statistically significant support for the second hypothesis. Explanations for the findings are drawn from equity theory and cognitive theories of depression.

Relationship between gender and food roles in the family

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine male and female roles in the performance of food-related household tasks. A total of 336 couples in four life-cycle stages — young families, maturing families, middle-age empty-nest families, and retirement families — were interviewed in their homes. Despite major societal changes in sex-role definitions and the increased employment of women outside the home, husbands and wives at all life-cycle stages agreed that food selection and preparation should be the domain of women. Consistent with the normative expectation, spouses reported that food-related activities were conducted primarily by wives, with only minor help from husbands. There was little or no marital conflict over the equity of the role expectation and performance. Husbands in the younger life-cycle stages thought that they should do more food preparation, and did in fact do slightly more cooking than husbands in later life cycles, but no more food selection; younger wives also thought that husbands should do more in food-related tasks. Husbands in older families tended to be more involved in food shopping and food budget decisions.

Stress in Marital Interaction and Change in Depression A Longitudinal Analysis

The research undertakes a longitudinal analysis of a model of the effects of stress in marital interaction on change in depressive symptoms as mediated by unfavorable reflected appraisals, low competency, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. The participants were 98 randomly selected married couples interviewed at two separate points in time. The data supported the proposed model. Stressors in marital interaction are associated with unfavorable reflected appraisals that have a direct effect on self-efficacy and an indirect effect on self-esteem. These two self-assessments have a direct effect on depressive symptoms after controlling for lagged level of depressive symptoms. A key variable is self-efficacy, which mediates the effect of reflected appraisals on self-esteem and has a direct effect on change in depressive symptoms.

Predicting fat in diets of marital partners using the health belief model

The objective of this investigation is to use the health belief model (HBM) to explain the percentage of calories from fat in the diet (PCF) for marital partners. The model includes four sets of determinate variables: perceived threat of a high-fat diet, barriers to a healthier diet, food choices made for health reasons, and self-efficacy, as well as sociodemographic background factors. One hundred fifty-five married couples were selected by a random area sample from the state of Iowa. Husbands and wives were interviewed separately in the home. The results partially support the HBM as applied to a nutrition domain and revealed interesting gender differences. For wives the cost of healthy diet changes had an effect on PCF. For husbands, perceived threat and self-efficacy had an effect on PCF. The differences are discussed on the basis of gender roles in the home and gender socialization.

Self-Esteem and Fruit and Vegetable Intake in Women and Men

Abstract Influences on food choices are multifactorial, and limited research has been reported on the role of social-psychological variables. Earlier studies have linked self-esteem with a variety of health behaviors. The purpose of this study was to extend the research to examine the relationship of self-esteem to dietary behaviors, specifically the intake of fruits and vegetables and their key nutrients. Subjects were 155 married couples in a stratified random sample of households in one mid-western state. Husbands and wives were interviewed separately in their own homes. Independent variables were age, education, income, body mass index, and self-esteem.The dependent variables were number of servings and variety of vegetables and fruits per week and energy-adjusted intakes of fiber, folate, and vitamins A and C. Self-esteem was measured by the Rosenberg questionnaire, while dietary intake was assessed by a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. Women reported significantly more servings of fruits per week, greater variety in both fruit and vegetable choices, and higher energy-adjusted nutrient intakes than did their husbands. Women met Food Guide Pyramid (FGP) recommendations for fruit intake and approached the recommendation for vegetable servings. Men fell short of FGP recommendations for both fruit and vegetables. After adjustment for age, education, income, and body mass index, self-esteem was a significant predictor of vitamin C and folate intake among women and folate intake among men. No other dietary variables were associated with self-esteem, although for men there was a trend for increased weekly servings of vegetables and increased variety in vegetable choices with higher self-esteem. One implication for practice is that age and education appear to be far stronger factors contributing to fruit and vegetable intake than is self-esteem. Additional research is needed to clarify the strength of self-esteem as a factor in specific food choices, especially among subpopulations.

INFORMAL TIES OF THE UNMARRIED IN MIDDLE AND LATER LIFE: WHO HAS THEM AND WHO DOES NOT?

Gender, marital status, age, and race were considered in relation to the amount and assessment of social ties among 1,124 unmarried men and women aged 40 and over. When there were significant effects of marital status, widowed people tended to be advantaged in amount and supportiveness of their informal ties, although the influence of marital status was affected by age and race. Contrary to some literature, gender differences in social relationships favoring women were not consistently observed. The oldest never married may have the greatest potential needs for affective and instrumental support.Gender, marital status, age, and race were considered in relation to the amount and assessment of social ties among 1,124 unmarried men and women aged 40 and over. When there were significant effects of marital status, widowed people tended to be advantaged in amount and supportiveness of their informal ties, although the influence of marital status was affected by age and race. Contrary to some literature, gender differences in social relationships favoring women were not consistently observed. The oldest never married may have the greatest potential needs for affective and instrumental support.

Role Behavior, Relative Deprivation, and Depression among Women in One- and Two-Job Families.

This research examined how assessments of role behavior in the family and relative deprivation in work-family situations were linked with depression among women in oneand two-job families. Knowledge of whether similar conditions evoke distress among homemakers and employed women should be helpful to practitioners. Data were obtained from interviews with 130 homemakers and 135 employed married women. Negative evaluations of role behavior in the family were more depressing to homemakers than to employed women while the importance of relative deprivation also differed for the two groups. Evaluations of role behavior and relative deprivation together were more salient in fostering depression than were social status characteristics. This has implications for practice since perceptions and subjective assessments should be more amenable to intervention than some of the more enduring status characteristics.

Relationships and well-being over the life stages

Relationships and Well-Being Over the Life Stages Methodology Work and Well-Being in One-and Two-Job Families Equity in the Marriage Relationship Gender Roles in the Family: Is the Older Family Different? Typologies of Marriages: Differences Across the Life Stages The Self-Concept in an Intimate Relationship Gender-Role Attitudes, Characteristics of Employment, and Well-Being of Single and Married Employed Mothers Food Behavior and Diet Over the Life Stages A Concluding Glimpse of Families Over the Life Stages References Index

Relative Deprivation, Equity/Inequity, and Psychological Well-Being: Men and Women in One- and Two-Job Families

The research reported here compared the extent to which relative deprivation, based on general social comparisons and perceptions of equity/inequity derived from specific comparisons in an intimate relationship, influenced the psychological well-being of men and women in one- and two-job families. Data were analyzed from interviews with 130 couples in one-job families and 135 families in two-job families. Beyond the discomfort and unfair treatment accompanying them, both relative deprivation and inequity were associated with depression when they were considered in the same model.