Robert Bailis

Low demand for nontraditional cookstove technologies

Biomass combustion with traditional cookstoves causes substantial environmental and health harm. Nontraditional cookstove technologies can be efficacious in reducing this adverse impact, but they are adopted and used at puzzlingly low rates. This study analyzes the determinants of low demand for nontraditional cookstoves in rural Bangladesh by using both stated preference (from a nationally representative survey of rural women) and revealed preference (assessed by conducting a cluster-randomized trial of cookstove prices) approaches. We find consistent evidence across both analyses suggesting that the women in rural Bangladesh do not perceive indoor air pollution as a significant health hazard, prioritize other basic developmental needs over nontraditional cookstoves, and overwhelmingly rely on a free traditional cookstove technology and are therefore not willing to pay much for a new nontraditional cookstove. Efforts to improve health and abate environmental harm by promoting nontraditional cookstoves may be more successful by designing and disseminating nontraditional cookstoves with features valued more highly by users, such as reduction of operating costs, even when those features are not directly related to the cookstoves’ health and environmental impacts.

Constructing Sustainable Biofuels: Governance of the Emerging Biofuel Economy

In recent decades, new modes of governance have emerged in which an array of non-nation-state actors (NNSAs) drive norms and behaviors related to the production and consumption of goods and services with potentially large environmental and social impacts. These modes of governance are evident in the governance of biofuels, where intergovernmental organizations, national and subnational governments, corporations, and civil society organizations have recently developed an array of standards, metastandards, and codes of conduct attempting to define the conditions in which crops can be grown, processed, and used as fuel. Although the field is populated by dozens of efforts, a few binding state-sponsored regulations appear to dominate the major markets for biofuels in the United States and European Union. Nevertheless, existing regulations were heavily influenced by NNSAs. Further, several state-derived modes of governing take the form of metastandards that permit standards developed by NNSAs to be used in their place, resulting in a hybrid system of state and nonstate governance regimes. The regimes taking shape attempt to minimize the negative impacts of biofuel production in numerous ways; for example, by introducing penalties for production associated with direct and indirect land use change, crediting for the coproduction of livestock feed, and encouraging biofuel production on marginal lands. However, these issues are plagued by contradictions, raising questions about how sustainability is defined and assessed in the context of biofuel governance.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Land Use Change from Jatropha Curcas-Based Jet Fuel in Brazil

This analysis presents a comparison of life-cycle GHG emissions from synthetic paraffinic kerosene (SPK) produced as jet fuel substitute from jatropha curcas feedstock cultivated in Brazil against a reference scenario of conventional jet fuel. Life cycle inventory data are derived from surveys of actual Jatropha growers and processors. Results indicate that a baseline scenario, which assumes a medium yield of 4 tons of dry fruit per hectare under drip irrigation with existing logistical conditions using energy-based coproduct allocation methodology, and assumes a 20-year plantation lifetime with no direct land use change (dLUC), results in the emissions of 40 kg CO₂e per GJ of fuel produced, a 55% reduction relative to conventional jet fuel. However, dLUC based on observations of land-use transitions leads to widely varying changes in carbon stocks ranging from losses in excess of 50 tons of carbon per hectare when Jatropha is planted in native cerrado woodlands to gains of 10-15 tons of carbon per hectare when Jatropha is planted in former agro-pastoral land. Thus, aggregate emissions vary from a low of 13 kg CO₂e per GJ when Jatropha is planted in former agro-pastoral lands, an 85% decrease from the reference scenario, to 141 kg CO₂e per GJ when Jatropha is planted in cerrado woodlands, a 60% increase over the reference scenario. Additional sensitivities are also explored, including changes in yield, exclusion of irrigation, shortened supply chains, and alternative allocation methodologies.

Potential greenhouse gas benefits of transatlantic wood pellet trade

Power utility companies in the United Kingdom are using imported wood pellets from the southern region of the United States for electricity generation to meet the legally binding mandate of sourcing 15% of the nations total energy consumption from renewable sources by 2020. This study ascertains relative savings in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for a unit of electricity generated using imported wood pellet in the United Kingdom under 930 different scenarios: three woody feedstocks (logging residues, pulpwood, and logging residues and pulpwood combined), two forest management choices (intensive and non-intensive), 31 plantation rotation ages (year 10 to year 40 in steps of 1 year), and five power plant capacities (20–100 MW in steps of 20 MW). Relative savings in GHG emissions with respect to a unit of electricity derived from fossil fuels in the United Kingdom range between 50% and 68% depending upon the capacity of power plant and rotation age. Relative savings in GHG emissions increase with higher power plant capacity. GHG emissions related to wood pellet production and transatlantic shipment of wood pellets typically contribute about 48% and 31% of total GHG emissions, respectively. Overall, use of imported wood pellets for electricity generation could help in reducing the United Kingdoms GHG emissions. We suggest that future research be directed to evaluation of the impacts of additional forest management practices, changing climate, and soil carbon on the overall savings in GHG emissions related to transatlantic wood pellet trade.

Sustainable Development of Biofuels in Latin America and the Caribbean

This chapter provides a background for consideration of the sustainability of biofuels in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). Facing the twin problems of increasingly scarce and risky petroleum resources and global climate change, many nations are turning to biofuels for the transportation sector. For several decades, the world leaders in biofuels production and use have been, by far, Brazil and most recently the USA. These programs have been considered to be in the national interest, and have been subsidized by governments to varying degrees until more recently. However, the sustainability of biofuels production has come under serious challenge, including their effect on greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity, deforestation, water use and pollution, food security, labor practices, among other issues. The first generation of biofuels in LAC has relied upon feedstocks that are food based, primarily sugarcane and soybeans, and conversion to non-food-based, second-generation biofuels has been extremely slow. An overview will be provided of numerous sustainability concerns, challenges, and policy responses, including nongovernmental organization governance and certification standards and schemes for biofuel and feedstock production. Given the already large export markets for US and Brazilian ethanol, and for Argentinean biodiesel, greater coordination between national biofuels sustainability programs will be essential to their successful implementation.

Insights into Jatropha Projects Worldwide - Key Facts & Figures from a Global Survey

The objective of this survey of oilseed production from Jatropha and other oilseed-bearing perennials is to contribute by establishing an up-to-date overview based on interviews with producers and industry experts in 2011. This survey of 154 projects yielded a comprehensive database that covers critical aspects such as agronomic settings, agricultural practices, yields, business activities and financing as well as sustainability management. This summary of key facts and figures provides an overview of the 111 commercial Jatropha plantations found to be operational at the time of the survey in mid-2011. It presents key agronomic and economic data points from this sample. The report targets a wide range of stakeholders in governmental and non-governmental organisations, academia, as well as businesses and investors.

Is Use of Both Pulpwood and Logging Residues Instead of Only Logging Residues for Bioenergy Development a Viable Carbon Mitigation Strategy

This study adopts an integrated life-cycle approach to assess overall carbon saving related with the utilization of wood pellets manufactured using pulpwood and logging residues for electricity generation. Carbon sequestered in wood products and wood present in landfills and avoided carbon emissions due to substitution of grid electricity with the electricity generated using wood pellets are considered part of overall carbon savings. Estimated value of overall carbon saving is compared with the overall carbon saving related to the current use of pulpwood and logging residues. The unit of analysis is a hectare of slash pine (Pinus elliottii) plantation in southern USA. All carbon flows are considered starting from forest management to the decay of wood products in landfills. Exponential decay function is used to ascertain carbon sequestered in wood products and wood present in landfills. Non-biogenic carbon emissions due to burning of wood waste at manufacturing facilities, wood pellets at a power plant, and logging residues on forestlands are also considered. Impacts of harvest age and forest management intensity on overall carbon saving are analyzed as well. The use of pulpwood for bioenergy development reduces carbon sequestered in wood products and wood present in landfills (up to 1.6 metric tons/ha) relative to a baseline when pulpwood is used for paper making and logging residues are used for manufacturing wood pellets. Avoided carbon emissions because of displacement of grid electricity from the electricity generated using wood pellets derived from pulpwood fully compensate the loss of carbon sequestered in wood products and wood present in landfills. The use of both pulpwood and logging residues for bioenergy development is beneficial from carbon perspective. Harvest age is more important in determining overall carbon saving than forest management intensity.

International Sustainability Standards and Certification

Standards have evolved as the major mode of governance for biofuels. In particular, the European Union (EU) policy approach actively employs a variety of voluntary certification standards under its meta-standard in order to safeguard sustainability of its mandated biofuel demand. Advantages and disadvantages of this novel, hybrid governance arrangement have been widely discussed. In order to fully understand the implications of this international governance arrangement, we argue that more research is required to determine the dynamics that evolve in specific contexts as to whether standards come to matter and which. In this chapter, we highlight two macro-level factors of such dynamics—markets and policy—for the geographic focus of this volume: Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). The current adoption of standards reflects the production and trade patterns of the region. EU sustainability criteria are most relevant for the biodiesel exporting industry in Argentina, while the US standard for greenhouse gas (GHG) savings influences Brazilian ethanol producers. Showing a tendency to minimal compliance, the current standard adoption in Argentina points at problematic dynamics within the EU Renewable Energy Directive (RED) governance arrangement. Weak regulatory and policy frameworks may pose barriers to the uptake of certification standards. Especially in LAC, where biofuel production often developed from already existing flex crop industries, biofuel policy is embedded in multiple sectoral policy areas and historical agrarian structures. The EU’s 100 % captive market for certified biofuels is likely to help overcoming this barrier. However, further research is urgently needed as to whether certification in weak policy contexts has complementarity or cosmetic effects.

Perceptions of stakeholders about nontraditional cookstoves in Honduras

We used SWOT-AHP (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats–analytical hierarchy process) technique to measure perceptions of four stakeholder groups: employees, local promoters, community leaders and end-users, about a nontraditional cookstove (NTCS) in Honduras. These stakeholder groups are part of an ongoing NTCS dissemination project led by Proyecto Mirador. We found that all stakeholder groups have a positive perception about the existing NTCS. Employees and local promoters stakeholder groups share similar perceptions. Smokeless cooking was selected as a prime strength, closely followed by reduction in forest logging and greenhouse gas emissions by all stakeholder groups. Availability of financial resources and responsible management were identified as crucial opportunities. Time spent in wood preparation and NTCS maintenance were identified as principal weaknesses. A long waiting time between a request and installation of NTCS and the risk of losing existing financial resources were acknowledged as major threats. Design improvements that can reduce maintenance and wood preparation time, a secure long-term source of funding through a market mechanism or direct/indirect government involvement, and early execution of pending orders will help in increasing adoption of NTCSs in rural Honduras.

Biofuel sustainability in Latin America and the Caribbean – a review of recent experiences and future prospects

The Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) region is a leader in global biofuel production, accounting for 27% of supply. This is driven by a proliferation of mandates and targets calling for increased use of biofuels around the world. Unsustainable biofuel production can alter landscapes and stress social-ecological systems. To mitigate impacts, different types of governance mechanisms have been introduced including national regulations, voluntary certification schemes, sustainability standards, meta-standards, and codes of conduct. Voluntary certification has gained prominence in the region, with over 220 producers and processors in 12 LAC countries obtaining certification. However, given the potential social and environmental impacts evident in the region, voluntary certification may be insufficient and stronger sustainability mechanisms may be justified.