Robert Clement

Estimates of the annual net carbon and water exchange of forests: The EUROFLUX methodology

Publisher Summary The chapter has described the measurement system and the procedure followed for the computation of the fluxes and the procedure of flux summation, including data gap filling strategy, night flux corrections and error estimation. It begins with the introduction of estimates of the annual net carbon and water exchange of forests using the EUROFLUX methodology. The chapter then provides us with the theory and moves on to discuss the eddy covariance system and its sonic anemometer, temperature fluctuation measurements, infrared gas analyser, air transport system, and tower instrumentation. Additional measurements are also given in the chapter. Data acquisition and its computation and correction is discussed next in the chapter by giving its general procedure, half-hourly means (co-)variances and uncorrected fluxes, intercomparison of software, and correction for frequency response losses. The chapter has also discussed about quality control and four criteria are investigated here for the same. Spatial representativeness of measured fluxes and summation procedure are reviewed. The chapter then moves on to the discussion of data gap filling through interpolation and parameterization and neural networks. Corrections to night-time data and error estimation are also explored in the chapter. Finally, the chapter closes with conclusions.

Respiration as the main determinant of carbon balance in European forests

Carbon exchange between the terrestrial biosphere and the atmosphere is one of the key processes that need to be assessed in the context of the Kyoto Protocol. Several studies suggest that the terrestrial biosphere is gaining carbon, but these estimates are obtained primarily by indirect methods, and the factors that control terrestrial carbon exchange, its magnitude and primary locations, are under debate. Here we present data of net ecosystem carbon exchange, collected between 1996 and 1998 from 15 European forests, which confirm that many European forest ecosystems act as carbon sinks. The annual carbon balances range from an uptake of 6.6 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year to a release of nearly 1 t C ha -1 yr-1, with a large variability between forests. The data show a significant increase of carbon uptake with decreasing latitude, whereas the gross primary production seems to be largely independent of latitude. Our observations indicate that, in general, ecosystem respiration determines net ecosystem carbon exchange. Also, for an accurate assessment of the carbon balance in a particular forest ecosystem, remote sensing of the normalized difference vegetation index or estimates based on forest inventories may not be sufficient.

A re-evaluation of long-term flux measurement techniques - Part I: Averaging and coordinate rotation

Experience of long term flux measurements over tall canopiesduring the last two decades has revealed that the eddy flux of sensible plus latentheat is typically 30% smaller than the available radiant energy flux. This failureto close the energy balance is less common close to the surface over short roughnessbut is still sometimes seen, especially in complex topography. These observationscast doubt on the results obtained from long term flux studies where daily and annualnet ecosystem exchange is usually the small difference between large positive andnegative fluxes over 24 h. In this paper we investigate this problem by examiningsome fundamental assumptions entailed in analysis of surface exchange by the eddyflux method.In particular, we clarify the form and use of the scalar conservation equation thatunderlies this analysis and we examine the links between averaging period androtation of coordinates in the situation where coordinates are aligned with thewind vector. We show that rotating coordinates so that the x axis is alignedwith the mean wind vector has the effect of high pass filtering the scalar covariance,¯wc, such that contributions to the aerodynamic flux from atmosphericmotions with periods longer than the averaging period are lost while those of shorterperiod are distorted.We compare the effect of computing surface exchange by averaging many shortperiods, in each of which the coordinates are rotated so that the mean verticalvelocity is zero (the method currently adopted in most long-term flux studies),with analysis in long-term coordinates and show a systematic underestimationof surface exchange in the former case. This is illustrated with data from threelong-term forest field sites where underestimations of sensible and latent heatfluxes of 10–15% averaged over many days are seen.Crucial factors determining the loss of flux are the averaging period T, themeasurement height and the content of the scalar cospectrum at periods longerthan T. The properties of this cospectrum over tall canopies in both homogeneousand complex terrain are illustrated by measurements at our three sites and we see thatover tall canopies on flat ground in convectiveconditions, or on hilly sites in near neutralflow, the scalar cospectra have much more low frequency contentthan classical surface-layerspectral forms would predict. We believe that the filtering of this low frequencycovariance by the averaging-rotation operations in common use is a large contributoryfactor to the failure to close the energy balance over tall canopies.

Averaging, Detrending, and Filtering of Eddy Covariance Time Series

Data from sensors in an eddy covariance system are routinely processed to remove trends and to produce fluctuations and means. Historically this has been seen to be a relatively straightforward task and the methods are well known. Such re-processing can result in the loss of real signal since the detrending and averaging methods act as high-pass filters. We review the main methods used to separate the active, turbulent transport that we treat as eddy flux from the slower, deterministic atmospheric motions and instrument drift. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various algorithms used in averaging, detrending and filtering and conclude that the best method is likely to be dependent on site conditions and data processing system in use. We recommend the use of the ogive to determine the optimal averaging period at any site. We illustrate outstanding issues with data from a number of FLUXNET sites.

Eddy fluxes of CO2, water vapor, and sensible heat over a deciduous forest

Fluxes of CO2, latent heat and sensible heat were measured above a fully-leafed deciduous forest in eastern Tennessee with the eddy correlation technique. These are among the first reported observations over such a surface. The influences of solar radiation, vapor pressure deficit and the aerodynamic and canopy resistances on these mass and energy exchanges are examined. Following a concept introduced by McNaughton and Jarvis (1983), examination of our data suggest that the water vapor exchange of a deciduous forest is not as strongly coupled with net radiation as is that of agricultural crops. The degree of decoupling is smaller than in the case of a coniferous forest. This difference may be attributable in part to the greater aerodynamic resistance to water vapor transfer in a deciduous forest. It appears that the concept of decoupling may be extended to the CO2 exchange of a deciduous forest as well.

Phase and amplitude of ecosystem carbon release and uptake potentials as derived from FLUXNET measurements

As length and timing of the growing season are major factors explaining differences in carbon exchange of ecosystems, we analyzed seasonal patterns of net ecosystem carbon exchange (FNEE) using eddy covariance data of the FLUXNET data base (http://www-eosdis.ornl.gov/FLUXNET). The study included boreal and temperate, deciduous and coniferous forests, Mediterranean evergreen systems, rainforest, native and managed temperate grasslands, tundra, and C3 and C4 crops. Generalization of seasonal patterns are useful for identifying functional vegetation types for global dynamic vegetation models, as well as for global inversion studies, and can help improve phenological modules in SVAT or biogeochemical models. The results of this study have important validation potential for global carbon cycle modeling. The phasing of respiratory and assimilatory capacity differed within forest types: for temperate coniferous forests seasonal uptake and release capacities are in phase, for temperate deciduous and boreal coniferous forests, release was delayed compared to uptake. According to seasonal pattern of maximum nighttime release (evaluated over 15-day periods, Fmax) the study sites can be grouped in four classes: (1) boreal and high altitude conifers and grasslands; (2) temperate deciduous and temperate conifers; (3) tundra and crops; (4) evergreen Mediterranean and tropical forests. Similar results are found for maximum daytime uptake (Fmin) and the integral net carbon flux, but temperate deciduous forests fall into class 1. For forests, seasonal amplitudes of Fmax and Fmin increased in the order tropical C3-crops>temperate deciduous forests>temperate conifers>boreal conifers>tundra ecosystems. Due to data restrictions, our analysis centered mainly on Northern Hemisphere temperate and boreal forest ecosystems. Grasslands, crops, Mediterranean ecosystems, and rainforests are under-represented, as are savanna systems, wooded grassland, shrubland, or year-round measurements in tundra systems. For regional or global estimates of carbon sequestration potentials, future investigations of eddy covariance should expand in these systems.

Momentum, water vapor, and carbon dioxide exchange at a centrally located prairie site during FIFE

Eddy correlation measurements were made of fluxes of momentum, sensible heat, water vapor, and carbon dioxide at a centrally located plateau site in the FIFE study area during the period from May to October 1987. About 82% of the vegetation at the site was comprised of several C4 grass species (big bluestem, Indian grass, switchgrass, tall dropseed, little bluestem, and blue grama), with the remainder being C3 grasses, sedges, forbs, and woody plants. The prairie was burned in mid-April and was not grazed. Precipitation during the study period was about normal, except for a 3-week dry period in late July to early August, which caused moisture stress conditions. The drag coefficient ( Cd=u*2/u¯2, where u* is the friction velocity and ū is the mean wind speed at 2.25 m above the ground) of the prairie vegetation ranged from 0.0087 to 0.0099. The average d/zc and z0/zc (where d is the zero plane displacement, z0 is the roughness parameter, and zc is the canopy height) were estimated to be about 0.71 and 0.028, respectively. Information was developed on the aerodynamic conductance (ga) in terms of mean wind speed (measured at a reference height) for different periods in the growing season. During the early and peak growth stages, with favorable soil moisture, the daily evapotranspiration (ET) rates ranged from 3.9 to 6.6 mm d−1. The ET rate during the dry period was between 2.9 and 3.8 mm d−1. The value of the Priestley-Taylor coefficient (α), calculated as the ratio of the measured ET to the equilibrium ET, averaged around 1.26 when the canopy stomatal resistance (rc) was less than 100 s m−1. When rc increased above 100 s m−1, α decreased rapidly. The atmospheric CO2 flux data (eddy correlation) were used, in conjunction with estimated soil CO2 flux, to evaluate canopy photosynthesis (Pc). The dependence of Pc on photosynthetically active radiation (KPAR), vapor pressure deficit, and soil moisture was examined. Under nonlimiting soil moisture conditions, Pc was primarily controlled by KPAR through a rectangular hyperbolic relationship. Our data did not indicate light saturation of the canopy up to KPAR levels of 2100 μEi m−2 s−1. Midday values of Pc reached a seasonal peak of 1.4–1.5 mg m−2 (ground area) s−1 during late June and early July. During the dry period (late July to early August), midday Pc declined to a minimum of almost zero. Examination of data on Pc, λE/Rn (the proportion of net radiation consumed in latent heat flux), extractable soil water, and the predawn leaf water potential indicated a remarkable similarity in overall patterns throughout the season. The photosynthetic efficiency was 1.5–2% during midday through most of the growing season (except during the dry period). The midday value of the prairie water use efficiency during the peak growth stage was 8–12 × 10−3 g CO2/g H2O.

Carbon dioxide budget in a temperate grassland ecosystem

Eddy correlation measurements of CO2 flux made during May–October 1987 and June–August 1989 were employed, in conjunction with simulated data, to examine the net exchange of CO2 in a temperate grassland ecosystem. Simulated estimates of CO2 uptake were used when flux measurements were not available. These estimates were based on daily intercepted photosynthetically active radiation, air temperature, and extractable soil water. Soil CO2 flux and dark respiration of the aerial part of plants were estimated using the relationships developed by Norman et al. (1992) and Polley et al. (1992) at the study site. Our results indicate that the CO2 exchange between this ecosystem and the atmosphere is highly variable. The net ecosystem CO2 exchange reached its peak value (12–18 g m−2 d−1) during the period when the leaf area index was maximum. Drought, a frequent occurrence in this region, can change this ecosystem from a sink to a source for atmospheric CO2. The degree to which this grassland can become a source of CO2 appears to depend not only on the severity and duration of the drought but also on the timing of the drought event in relation to the growth stage of the prairie vegetation. Comparison with data on dry matter indicated that the aboveground biomass accounted for about 45–70% of the net carbon uptake, suggesting the importance of the below ground biomass in estimating net primary productivity in this ecosystem.

Conversion of canopy intercepted radiation to photosynthate: review of modelling approaches for regional scales

A fundamental component of most models of terrestrial carbon balance is an estimate of plant canopy photosynthetic uptake driven by radiation interception by the canopy. In this article, we review approaches used to model the conversion of radiation into photosynthate. As this process is well understood at the leaf-scale, the modelling problem is essentially one of up-scaling, to canopy, regional or global scale. Our review therefore focuses on issues of scaling, including model identification, parameterisation and validation at large scales. Four different approaches are commonly taken to modelling photosynthate production at large scales: the maximum productivity, resource-use efficiency, big-leaf, and sun-shade models. Models representing each of these approaches are discussed and model predictions compared with estimates of gross primary productivity derived from eddy covariance data measured above a Sitka spruce forest. The sun-shade model was found to perform best at all time scales considered. However, other models had significant advantages including simplicity of implementation and the ability to combine the model with remotely-sensed information on vegetation radiation interception. We conclude that all four approaches can be successfully used to model photosynthetic uptake and that the best approach in a given situation will depend on model objectives and data availability.

Eddy correlation measurements of methane flux in a northern peatland ecosystem

A pilot study to measure methane flux using eddy correlation sensors was conducted in a peatland ecosystem in north central Minnesota. A prototype tunable diode laser spectrometer system was employed to measure the fluctuations in methane concentration.The logarithmic cospectrum of methane concentration and vertical wind velocity fluctuations under moderately unstable conditions had a peak nearf = 0.10 (wheref is the nondimensional frequency) and was quite similar to the cospectra of water vapor and sensible heat. Daytime methane flux during the first two weeks of August ranged from 120 to 270 mg m-2 day-1. The temporal variation in methane fluxes was consistent with changes in peat temperature and water table elevation. Our results compared well with the range of values obtained in previous studies in Minnesota peatlands.These field observations demonstrate the utility of the micrometeorological eddy correlation technique for measuring surface fluxes of methane. The current state-of-the-art in tunable diode laser spectroscopy makes this approach practical for use in key ecosystems.