Robert French

“Negative capability”: managing the confusing uncertainties of change

Explores how psychoanalytic thinking can contribute to the management of the conflicting emotions stimulated by change. Suggests that successful change management depends on a combination of “positive” and “negative” capabilities. The positive capabilities involve the management of the substantive content of any change initiative, the change process itself, and the roles and procedures required by both of these. However, even when these three “technical” aspects are well managed, change always arouses anxiety and uncertainty. As a result, there is a tendency to “disperse” energy; that is, to be deflected from the task into a range of avoidance tactics. Through a particular understanding of such “dispersal” and its opposite, the “capacity to contain”, psychoanalysis can suggest how this counterproductive tendency may be more effectively managed. The British psychoanalyst Wilfred Bion called this capacity to contain “negative capability”.

NEGATIVE CAPABILITY AND THE CAPACITY TO THINK IN THE PRESENT MOMENT: Some implications for leadership practice

Two themes that are prevalent in the literature on leadership practice are planning for the future and learning from the past. In this ‘Leading Questions’ piece, we raise the question of whether, in addition, attention needs to be given to a third element that is not well represented in the literature: the leaders capacity to think in the present. We suggest that such thinking requires the capacity to see what is actually going on, in contrast with what was planned for, expected or intended – even when what is actually going on is uncertain or even unknown. In keeping with the theme of this special issue we demonstrate that attending to the present moment is a refrain both ancient and modern, to be found in eastern and western religion and philosophy while having a direct impact on practical modern disciplines, such as psychoanalysis. For example, Wilfred Bions writings on psychoanalytic theory explore the nature of mental and emotional capacities demanded by this focus on the present moment and its relationship to the development of thought. Using an idea employed by Bion in this context, we suggest that an important dimension of leadership practice is negative capability, which comprises patience and the ability to tolerate frustration and anxiety. This capability can help the leader to retain the capacity to think in the present moment, even in the face of uncertainty. In this context, important dimensions of leadership practice include the ability to embody key thoughts on behalf of an organization and the capacity to contain the impact of the new thinking that can arise in the present moment.

The Upside of the Downside How Utilizing Defensive Dynamics can Support Learning in Groups

In this paper we suggest that it is important in management education to work with the defensive dynamics in learning groups. Through a consideration of the dynamics within complex systems, we argue that the ways in which these defensive dynamics are worked with may determine the levels of learning attained. This work requires a recognition that defensive dynamics within groups can limit learning, an awareness of the nature of such dynamics, and skill in adopting appropriate strategies in relation to them. Both staff and learners can contribute to this work.

The ‘work group’: Redressing the balance in Bion’s Experiences in Groups

The intention of this article is to explore and develop Wilfred Bion’s theory of groups, and to contribute to its wider application across the social sciences. Bion suggested that groups operate simultaneously in two strictly contrasting ways, based on distinctive mental states, which he called ‘basic-assumption mentality’ and ‘work-group mentality’. He believed that these mentalities determine a group’s capacity to achieve its purposes. However, the development of these ideas has tended to focus on the regressive tendency in group functioning — on basic-assumption mentality. This article attempts to redress the balance by ascribing equal importance to the notion of work-group mentality. First, it extends Bion’s framework, developing the concept of the ‘work group’ in parallel with the ‘basic assumptions’; second, it considers the dynamic relationship between these two mentalities, in order, finally, to explore the application of Bion’s ideas via a case example.

From theoria to theory: Leadership without contemplation

This article explores the transition of the theological and philosophical concept of theoria—contemplation—to the modern notion of theory. Theory derives linguistically from theoria and retains a connection with knowledge. However, it has lost and, moreover, typically excludes theoria’s focus upon the direct experiential knowledge of the divine. In keeping with the thrust of this special issue, we focus on how the secularization of the theological concept of theoria defines in a profound manner the limits and possibilities of thinking and theorizing work and organization. We examine the nature of theoria and the transitions that have led to its metamorphosis. It is suggested that dominant forms of theorizing work and organization are typically performative (Lyotard, 1984). This is illustrated, somewhat ironically, through a review of Spiritual Leadership Theory, which appears to promote spiritual leadership without contemplation.

Downplaying Leadership: Researching How Leaders Talk About Themselves

This article identifies the notion of downplaying leadership. While some attempt is made to explore the meaning of this practice, our primary intention is to describe a method and framework for analysing the transcripts of leadership interviews. This method has been developed to help identify how leaders may sometimes use language in research interviews to play down the importance of their own leadership and of leadership in general.

Maturity and education, citizenship and enlightenment: an introduction to Theodor Adorno and Hellmut Becker, 'Education for maturity and responsibility'

In a series of radio broadcasts, one of which is translated for the first time in this issue (pp. 21-34), Adorno and Becker claimed that modern education is profoundly inadequate. Their views on education draw heavily on Kant’s notion of Enlightenment as a process for the development of personal and social maturity and responsibility. As such, education cannot just be a training but must itself be a developmental process which takes into account not only social and political realities but also the complex psychodynamics involved in learning. However, Adorno and Becker arrive at a position that is close to self-contradictory, unable to solve the paradox inherent in the idea of an education that is at once authoritative and non-conformist. This might arise from their failure to reflect on the nature of their own dialogue, and it is suggested that friendship offers the social model of a dynamic relationship of the type they sought to articulate. Despite the fact that the discussion took place in 1969, in a climate of educational debate radically different from today’s, their work raises issues and poses questions of the profoundest importance 30 years on.

Friendship and organization: Learning from the western friendship tradition

Abstract This article describes and explores some key concepts from the classical, Western friendship tradition in order to see whether anything may be learned from them about the processes of organizing today. First, it looks at the difference between the modern notion of friendship, which emphasizes intimacy as the basis for an interpersonal relationship, and the classical tradition, which held a much more differentiated view, extending from the interpersonal to the political and systemic. In particular, the idea of friendship as a hexis is described – that is, as a state of mind or disposition towards others rather than just an intimate relationship. Second, it looks at the idea of ‘levels’ of friendship – from those based on utility or pleasure to those rooted in a striving after virtue – which opens up possibilities for analysing the culture of human relationships in organizations. Finally, it examines ways in which these ideas might be applied in organizations through the elaboration of the practices of friendship in the context of levels of friendship and of the idea of friendship as a state of mind.

A New Pedagogical Approach for Integrating Social Work Students and Service Users

This paper analyses recent experiences at the School of Social Work, Lund University, the first in Sweden to use an innovative pedagogical approach for integrating social service users with social work students in the classroom (an EU-funded project). The concept of gift exchange was used to make sense of the approach. Gift exchange is based on the norm of reciprocity and the principles of gift economy—to give, to receive and to return. As one of the most significant integrative relations, this exchange of gifts and courtesies serves the purpose of keeping balance in the system. The focus in this project was on the relationship between two groups of students: service user students—that is, social service users in the role of students on the course—and social work students. The experience of undertaking this project raised many questions, such as what promotes and what hinders mutual learning between two parties in the classroom. Findings show the relevance of such concepts as the gift economy and the importance of reciprocity in teaching contexts. They played an important role in the process of creating a positive learning climate and understanding the integration of social relations between the two groups.

Betrayal and friendship

The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between friendship and betrayal. Both are perceived to involve dynamics that can have a major impact in organizations, but both have tended to be under researched.