Robert G. Bergman

Rhodium catalyzed chelation-assisted C-H bond functionalization reactions

Over the last several decades, researchers have achieved remarkable progress in the field of organometallic chemistry. The development of metal-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions represents a paradigm shift in chemical synthesis, and today synthetic chemists can readily access carbon-carbon and carbon-heteroatom bonds from a vast array of starting compounds. Although we cannot understate the importance of these methods, the required prefunctionalization to carry out these reactions adds cost and reduces the availability of the starting reagents. The use of C-H bond activation in lieu of prefunctionalization has presented a tantalizing alternative to classical cross-coupling reactions. Researchers have met the challenges of selectivity and reactivity associated with the development of C-H bond functionalization reactions with an explosion of creative advances in substrate and catalyst design. Literature reports on selectivity based on steric effects, acidity, and electronic and directing group effects are now numerous. Our group has developed an array of C-H bond functionalization reactions that take advantage of a chelating directing group, and this Account surveys our progress in this area. The use of chelation control in C-H bond functionalization offers several advantages with respect to substrate scope and application to total synthesis. The predictability and decreased dependence on the inherent stereoelectronics of the substrate generally result in selective and high yielding transformations with broad applicability. The nature of the chelating moiety can be chosen to serve as a functional handle in subsequent elaborations. Our work began with the use of Rh(I) catalysts in intramolecular aromatic C-H annulations, which we further developed to include enantioselective transformations. The application of this chemistry to the simple olefinic C-H bonds found in α,β-unsaturated imines allowed access to highly substituted olefins, pyridines, and piperidines. We observed complementary reactivity with Rh(III) catalysts and developed an oxidative coupling with unactivated alkenes. Further studies on the Rh(III) catalysts led us to develop methods for the coupling of C-H bonds to polarized π bonds such as those in imines and isocyanates. In several cases the methods that we have developed for chelation-controlled C-H bond functionalization have been applied to the total synthesis of complex molecules such as natural products, highlighting the utility of these methods in organic synthesis.

Direct functionalization of nitrogen heterocycles via Rh-catalyzed C-H bond activation.

[Reaction: see text]. Nitrogen heterocycles are present in many compounds of enormous practical importance, ranging from pharmaceutical agents and biological probes to electroactive materials. Direct functionalization of nitrogen heterocycles through C-H bond activation constitutes a powerful means of regioselectively introducing a variety of substituents with diverse functional groups onto the heterocycle scaffold. Working together, our two groups have developed a family of Rh-catalyzed heterocycle alkylation and arylation reactions that are notable for their high level of functional-group compatibility. This Account describes our work in this area, emphasizing the relevant mechanistic insights that enabled synthetic advances and distinguished the resulting transformations from other methods. We initially discovered an intramolecular Rh-catalyzed C-2 alkylation of azoles by alkenyl groups. That reaction provided access to a number of di-, tri-, and tetracyclic azole derivatives. We then developed conditions that exploited microwave heating to expedite these reactions. While investigating the mechanism of this transformation, we discovered that a novel substrate-derived Rh- N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) complex was involved as an intermediate. We then synthesized analogous Rh-NHC complexes directly by treating precursors to the intermediate [RhCl(PCy 3)2] with N-methylbenzimidazole, 3-methyl-3,4-dihydroquinazoline, and 1-methyl-1,4-benzodiazepine-2-one. Extensive kinetic analysis and DFT calculations supported a mechanism for carbene formation in which the catalytically active RhCl(PCy 3) 2 fragment coordinates to the heterocycle before intramolecular activation of the C-H bond occurs. The resulting Rh-H intermediate ultimately tautomerizes to the observed carbene complex. With this mechanistic information and the discovery that acid cocatalysts accelerate the alkylation, we developed conditions that efficiently and intermolecularly alkylate a variety of heterocycles, including azoles, azolines, dihydroquinazolines, pyridines, and quinolines, with a wide range of functionalized olefins. We demonstrated the utility of this methodology in the synthesis of natural products, drug candidates, and other biologically active molecules. In addition, we developed conditions to directly arylate these heterocycles with aryl halides. Our initial conditions that used PCy 3 as a ligand were successful only for aryl iodides. However, efforts designed to avoid catalyst decomposition led to the development of ligands based on 9-phosphabicyclo[4.2.1]nonane (phoban) that also facilitated the coupling of aryl bromides. We then replicated the unique coordination environment, stability, and catalytic activity of this complex using the much simpler tetrahydrophosphepine ligands and developed conditions that coupled aryl bromides bearing diverse functional groups without the use of a glovebox or purified reagents. With further mechanistic inquiry, we anticipate that researchers will better understand the details of the aforementioned Rh-catalyzed C-H bond functionalization reactions, resulting in the design of more efficient and robust catalysts, expanded substrate scope, and new transformations.

Proton-Mediated Chemistry and Catalysis in a Self-Assembled Supramolecular Host

Synthetic supramolecular host assemblies can impart unique reactivity to encapsulated guest molecules. Synthetic host molecules have been developed to carry out complex reactions within their cavities, despite the fact that they lack the type of specifically tailored functional groups normally located in the analogous active sites of enzymes. Over the past decade, the Raymond group has developed a series of self-assembled supramolecules and the Bergman group has developed and studied a number of catalytic transformations. In this Account, we detail recent collaborative work between these two groups, focusing on chemical catalysis stemming from the encapsulation of protonated guests and expanding to acid catalysis in basic solution. We initially investigated the ability of a water-soluble, self-assembled supramolecular host molecule to encapsulate protonated guests in its hydrophobic core. Our study of encapsulated protonated amines revealed rich host-guest chemistry. We established that self-exchange (that is, in-out guest movement) rates of protonated amines were dependent on the steric bulk of the amine rather than its basicity. The host molecule has purely rotational tetrahedral (T) symmetry, so guests with geminal N-methyl groups (and their attendant mirror plane) were effectively desymmetrized; this allowed for the observation and quantification of the barriers for nitrogen inversion followed by bond rotation. Furthermore, small nitrogen heterocycles, such as N-alkylaziridines, N-alkylazetidines, and N-alkylpyrrolidines, were found to be encapsulated as proton-bound homodimers or homotrimers. We further investigated the thermodynamic stabilization of protonated amines, showing that encapsulation makes the amines more basic in the cavity. Encapsulation raises the effective basicity of protonated amines by up to 4.5 pK(a) units, a difference almost as large as that between the moderate and strong bases carbonate and hydroxide. The thermodynamic stabilization of protonated guests was translated into chemical catalysis by taking advantage of the potential for accelerating reactions that take place via positively charged transition states, which could be potentially stabilized by encapsulation. Orthoformates, generally stable in neutral or basic solution, were found to be suitable substrates for catalytic hydrolysis by the assembly. Orthoformates small enough to undergo encapsulation were readily hydrolyzed by the assembly in basic solution, with rate acceleration factors up to 3900 compared with those of the corresponding uncatalyzed reactions. Furthering the analogy to enzymes that obey Michaelis-Menten kinetics, we observed competitive inhibition with the inhibitor NPr(4)(+), thereby confirming that the interior cavity of the assembly was the active site for catalysis. Mechanistic studies revealed that the assembly is required for catalysis and that the rate-limiting step of the reaction involves proton transfer from hydronium to the encapsulated substrate. Encapsulation in the assembly changes the orthoformate hydrolysis from an A-1 mechanism (in which decomposition of the protonated substrate is the rate-limiting step) to an A-S(E)2 mechanism (in which proton transfer is the rate-limiting step). The study of hydrolysis in the assembly was next extended to acetals, which were also catalytically hydrolyzed by the assembly in basic solution. Acetal hydrolysis changed from the A-1 mechanism in solution to an A-2 mechanism inside the assembly, where attack of water on the protonated substrate is rate limiting. This work provides rare examples of assembly-catalyzed reactions that proceed with substantial rate accelerations despite the absence of functional groups in the cavity and with mechanisms fully elucidated by quantitative kinetic studies.

Synthesis of dihydropyridines and pyridines from imines and alkynes via C-H activation.

A convenient one-pot C-H alkenylation/electrocyclization/aromatization sequence has been developed for the synthesis of highly substituted pyridine derivatives from alkynes and alpha,beta-unsaturated N-benzyl aldimines and ketimines that proceeds through dihydropyridine intermediates. A new class of ligands for C-H activation was developed, providing broader scope for the alkenylation step than could be achieved with previously reported ligands. Substantial information was obtained about the mechanism of the reaction. This included the isolation of a C-H activated complex and its structure determination by X-ray analysis; in addition, kinetic simulations using the Copasi software were employed to determine rate constants for this transformation, implicating facile C-H oxidative addition and slow reductive elimination steps.

Rhodium(III)-Catalyzed Arylation of Boc-Imines via C−H Bond Functionalization

The first rhodium-catalyzed arylation of imines proceeding via C-H bond functionalization is reported. Use of a non-coordinating halide abstractor is important to obtain reactivity. Aryl-branched N-Boc-amines are formed, and a wide range of functionality is compatible with the reaction.

Catalytic C-O bond cleavage of 2-aryloxy-1-arylethanols and its application to the depolymerization of lignin-related polymers.

A ruthenium-catalyzed, redox neutral C-O bond cleavage of 2-aryloxy-1-arylethanols was developed that yields cleavage products in 62-98% isolated yield. This reaction is applicable to breaking the key ethereal bond found in lignin-related polymers. The bond transformation proceeds by a tandem dehydrogenation/reductive ether cleavage. Initial mechanistic investigations indicate that the ether cleavage is most likely an organometallic C-O activation. A catalytic depolymerization of a lignin-related polymer quantitatively yields the corresponding monomer with no added reagent.

Rh(III)-catalyzed oxidative coupling of unactivated alkenes via C-H activation.

Oxime directed aromatic C-H bond activation and oxidative coupling to alkenes is reported using a cationic Rh(III) catalyst. Significantly, the method can be used to oxidatively couple unactivated, aliphatic alkenes.

Rh(I)-Catalyzed Direct Arylation of Pyridines and Quinolines

A Rh(I)-catalyzed direct arylation of pyridine and quinoline heterocycles has been developed. The method provides rapid entry into an important class of substituted heterocycles employing inexpensive and readily available starting materials.

Expedient synthesis of N-acyl anthranilamides and β-enamine amides by the Rh(III)-catalyzed amidation of aryl and vinyl C-H bonds with isocyanates.

A Rh(III)-catalyzed protocol for the amidation of anilide and enamide C-H bonds with isocyanates has been developed. This method provides direct and efficient syntheses of N-acyl anthranilamides, enamine amides, and pyrimidin-4-one heterocycles.

Enzymelike catalysis of the Nazarov cyclization by supramolecular encapsulation.

The water-soluble, self-assembled, tetrahedral assembly K(12)Ga(4)L(6) (L = 1,5-biscatecholamidenaphthalene) catalyzes the Nazarov cyclization of 1,3-pentadienols with extremely high levels of efficiency. The catalyzed reaction proceeds over a million times faster than the background reaction, an increase comparable to those observed in some enzymatic systems. This catalysis operates under aqueous conditions at mild temperatures and pH, and the reaction is halted by the addition of an appropriate inhibitor. This unprecedented rate enhancement is attributed to both the stabilization of protonated reaction intermediates and the effect of constrictive binding on the bound guest.