Robert G. L. Pryor

The Chaos Theory of Careers.

Most contemporary theories of career development have difficulty taking into account current realities of career decision-making including complexity, change, constructivism and chance. We sought a conceptual formulation that incorporated the best of contemporary theories in a larger framework, which at the same time incorporated such realities. Under the influence of four intellectual currents—contextualism/ecology; systems theory; realism/constructivism; and chaos theory—an attempt was made to adumbrate a chaos theory of careers emphasising complexity, order, randomness and sensitivity to non-linear change.

Order and chaos: a twenty-first century formulation of careers

A chaos theory of career choice and development is outlined. Traditional trait–factor theories of career choice and development overlook too many pertinent influences on career decision-making, such as change and chance events. As a consequence these reductionist approaches fail to adequately capture some of the most salient influences on an individuals career decisions. More recent systems theory approaches better acknowledge the complex array of influences and the recursive nature of many of those influences. These models have been useful in providing taxonomy of influences that have frequently been overlooked. Developing from such models the chaos theory of careers is outlined. The chaos theoretical approach to career decision-making builds upon this identified complex array of influences. It provides a framework for understanding why career trajectories are not exactly repeatable, how relatively minor changes in subtle variables can lead to major changes in career path and how realist and constructiv...

Values, preferences, needs, work ethics, and orientations to work: Toward a conceptual and empirical integration☆

Abstract There have been comparatively few attempts on either the conceptual or empirical level to integrate values, preferences, needs, work ethics, and orientations to work. A rationale outlining the way these concepts can be related to each other, is presented. It is maintained that these concepts are categories of relations between humans and work. These categories are qualitatively similar and differ principally in the level of generality of the characteristics of work considered. Complete-link cluster analysis is suggested as a method of analysis compatible with the proffered rationale. Two studies are presented with data gathered during the development of two versions of Work Aspect Preference Scale (WAPS). The samples for the two studies both comprised senior high school students, controlled for sex and age, who were administered the WAPS. Study 1 had a sample of 532 while Study 2 had a sample size of 482. Both sets of data were cluster analyzed. Results indicated a very substantial amount of agreement between the two samples, particularly at the more general levels of clustering. The bipartite and tripartite groupings of vocational needs suggested by L. H. Lofquist and R. V. Dawis ( Journal of Vocational Behavior , 1978 , 12 , 12–19) were confirmed as were the findings of J. Mortimer ( Sociology of Work and Occupations , 1975 , 2 , 29–53). Other clusters were also identified with findings from previous research. It is concluded that the investigation of preferences at different levels of generality and the interrelation between these levels shows great promise for both the researcher and the counselor and therefore merits more research effort.

Sex Differences in the Levels of Generality of Values/Preferences Related to Work.

Abstract The current literature on sex differences in values/preferences related to work appears polarized around two apparently contradictory sets of findings and conclusions. One set of studies fails to detect sex differences. The other set of studies indicates that males are more concerned about money, independence, security, and career goals, while females appear more concerned about people and environmental issues at work. Following W. D. Siegfried, I. MacFarlane, D. B. Graham, N. A. Moore, and P. L. Young ( Journal of Vocational Behavior , 1981, 18 , 30–42) it is suggested that level of analysis may be a crucial factor accounting for much of the prevailing confusion in the literature. This study investigated sex differences in values/preferences related to work at various levels of generality. A sample of 1081 senior high school students was administered the Work Aspect Preference Scale (WAPS). Complete-link cluster analyses were performed for males and females separately. Comparison of the two dendrograms reveals the substantial similarity of the preference patterns of males and females. However, the basic difference in the patterns focused on the Altruism and Physical Activity subscales. Females appeared more likely to associate helping others with personal achievement whereas males tended to see helping people in terms of controlling and organizing them. Females also linked physical activity with helping others and self-development whereas males tended to associate physical activity with extrinsic rewards of work. It is concluded that the use of cluster analysis techniques may provide the best procedure to effect an adequate reconciliation of the conflicting results to be found in the current literature.

Shiftwork: A Chaos Theory of Careers Agenda for Change in Career Counselling

This paper presents the implications of the Chaos Theory of Careers for career counselling in the form of Shiftwork. Shiftwork represents an expanded paradigm of career counselling based on complexity, change and uncertainty. Eleven paradigm shifts for careers counselling are outlined to incorporate into contemporary practice pattern making, an emphasis on planning, openness, flexibility, risk, possibility thinking, mattering and meaning, transforming information, scalable reasoning, emergence and trust as faith.

Career compromise: A test of Gottfredson's (1981) theory using a policy-capturing procedure☆

Abstract The aim of this study was to test Gottfredsons (1981) compromise model by comparing the relative importance of sex-type, prestige, and interests under career preference and compromise choice situations using a policy-capturing paradigm. Thirty-seven participants rated the attractiveness of 27 hypothetical jobs created through the factorial combination of each of the 3 levels of sex-type, prestige, and interests. The unique percentage of variance accounted for by each factor for each respondent was calculated and these data were subjected to a 3 × 2 repeated measures analysis of variance. No support was found for Gottfredsons compromise model. Sex-type was not the most resistant to compromise nor were interests most easily compromised. Results are discussed in light of the difficulties encountered in testing Gottfredsons compromise model. The comparative advantages of process-oriented but content-free theories such as those outlined by Gati (1986) are highlighted.

Chaos in Practice: Techniques for Career Counsellors.

The chaos theory of careers emphasises continual change, the centrality and importance of chance events, the potential of minor events to have disproportionately large impacts on subsequent events, and the capacity for dramatic phase shifts in career behaviour This approach challenges traditional approaches to career counselling, assumptions about the importance of chance events, and the idea that counselling should aim to reduce career options to a rational and manageable set of logical choices. This new approach demands new techniques and tools to assist the counsellor and client. Four different techniques and exercises are outlined that are designed to assist a counsellor in applying chaos theory in practice. The techniques cover: reality testing; limits to rational decision making; using the media to illustrate non-linearity and chance events; and using forensic techniques to establish historic and contemporary patterns of influence on career behaviour.

What would I do if I couldn't do what I wanted to do? investigating career compromise strategies

Abstract Although the process of compromise is crucial to career decision making, it has received little attention. This paper reports an attempt to explore peoples attitudes and beliefs about how they would behave if they were forced to make career compromises. Specifically, subjects were asked to indicate what they would do if they were faced with a number of hypothetical career compromise situations where there were limited alternatives. Each alternative represented a different strategy and was varied according to the dimensions outlined in Gottfredsons (1981) circumscription/compromise theory of occupational aspirations. The results are discussed in terms of the circumscription/compromise theory and the practice of vocational counselling. Typically, subjects opted to sacrifice prestige level and maintain vocational interests and occupational sex type. This finding did not confirm Gottfredsons theory, nor was it consistent with previous research concerning how individuals state they would behave if ...

Game as a career metaphor: a chaos theory career counselling application

ABSTRACT The potential of game as a career metaphor for use in counselling is explored and it is argued that it has been largely overlooked in the literature to date. This metaphor is then explicitly linked with the Chaos Theory of Careers (CTC), by showing how the notion of attractors within the CTC can be illustrated effectively using games metaphors. Games simultaneously illustrate the closed and open systems aspects of human endeavours and therefore can be a useful way of encouraging clients to appreciate the contingent and uncertain nature of their career development. It is argued, therefore, that metaphors provide an example of analogical reasoning that is useful for dealing with the modern counselling realities of complexity, connectedness, systems, changeability and chance.

‘I Had Seen Order and Chaos, but Had thought They were Different.’ The Challenges of the Chaos Theory for Career Development

This paper highlights five challenges to the accepted wisdom in career development theory and practice. It presents the chaos theory of careers and argues that the chaos theory provides a more complete and authentic account of human behaviour. The paper argues that positivism, reductionism and assumptions of linearity are inappropriate for capturing career behaviour. Equally, predicting effect from cause is difficult and often impossible given the complexities of modern life. This paper calls for career development theory to accept a broader purview and concludes that ignoring other aspects of life both limits and undermines the utility of narrowly defined theories. Traditional notions of logic, rationality and objectivity are called into question. Finally, it is argued that chaos theory provides a natural connection between science and spirituality.