Robert G. Lord

A test of leadership categorization theory: internal structure, information processing, and leadership perceptions

Abstract This paper reports results from a series of studies designed to directly test a categorization-based model of leadership perceptions in three areas: specifying the internal structure of leadership categories, investigating the accessibility and importance of various individual behaviors in making leadership judgments, and explaining leadership perception in terms of categorization. In Study 1, data provided by 263 subjects were used to calculate three measures of category representativeness: family resemblance scores, cue validity scores, and prototypicality ratings. Results showed that leader family resemblance, cue validity, and prototypicality were all strongly correlated. In Study 2, accessibility was investigated by administering to 64 subjects a specially constructed questionnaire containing leader behaviors which varied in prototypicality and then measuring the reaction time to rate the behavior as prototypical of a leader. Results showed that there was a significant negative correlation between prototypicality and reaction time to behavioral items, suggesting that more prototypical items were more easily accessed. Study 3 manipulated prototypicality of leadership behaviors for an experimental group where leadership had been primed extensively and for a group of subjects who had been given no primes. The results showed the prototypicality manipulation strongly affected leadership ratings, behavioral expectations, and causal ascriptions to the target person, but the priming factor had no significant effects on dependent variables. Suggestions for future research and practical implications are also discussed.

A control systems conceptualization of the goal-setting and changing process☆

Abstract Most of the research on goal setting has focused on the relationship between goals and subsequent performance. Much less research has been directed at explaining why goal setting works or at integrating it with other motivational theories. In this paper a control systems model of motivation is developed in which a goal is considered a referent or desired state to which performance is compared. Any discrepancy (error) between goals and performance creates a corrective motivation. Predictions based on this model are tested in a classroom situation using a longitudinal research design involving 188 college students. Results support many aspects of the proposed model. It is concluded that goal setting should be viewed as a dynamic process in which both self-set goals and environmental feedback are incorporated into a system that monitors performance relative to a desired state and adjusts subsequent goals, behaviors, and strategies.

Leadership processes and follower self-identity.

Contents: A.P. Brief, J.P. Walsh, Series Foreword. Preface. Common Sense, Science, and Leadership. The Working Self-Concept and Behavior. Level and Self-Concept. Temporary and Enduring Effects of Leaders. Generating a Mental Representation of a Leaders Behavior: Linking Perception to WSC Activation. Leadership and Emotions. With C. Selenta, Leadership and Organizational Justice. The Value Added by a Second-Order, Subordinate-Focused Approach to Understanding Leadership Processes.

Implicit Theories, Self-Schemas, and Leader-Member Exchange

This study examined the relation of cognitive factors (implicit theories, self-schemas, and perceived similarity) to liking and leader-member exchange (LMX) in a field setting. Perceived similarity...

Contextual constraints on prototype generation and their multilevel consequences for leadership perceptions

Abstract It has become increasingly evident that no single prototype or style of leadership applies to all situations. In fact, we argue that definitions of leadership depend upon innumerable situational and contextual factors related both to the leader being perceived and to the broader external environment. To date, however, there is no theoretical framework that easily explains how perceivers integrate such a broad range of factors. In the current paper, we first present a model, based on recent advances in cognitive science, that allows for the simultaneous cognitive integration of multiple factors influencing the definition of leadership. We contend that this model can be used to understand both the stability and flexibility that is witnessed in the application of leadership prototypes. The framework is then integrated with the idea of alternative levels of analysis, providing a new perspective on how levels of analysis issues can be explored. Finally, we discuss the practical implications of our framework.

Leadership, values, and subordinate self-concepts

Abstract This article discusses two means by which leaders can impact on subordinate self-regulatory processes — making particular patterns of values salient and activating specific subordinate self-concepts. Research indicating compatible structures among values and self-identities is discussed, and it is suggested that such structures are automatically related by networks of mutual activation or inhibition. The potential of this framework for advancing leadership practice and research is also discussed.

Executive Leadership and Organizational Performance: Suggestions for a New Theory and Methodology

It is argued that the question over whether top-level leadership significantly affects organizationalperformance can be clarified by properly interpreting the results of executive succession studies that have used economic aspects of organizational performance as criteria. When several methodological concerns are addressed, it is evident that executive leadership can explain as much as 45% of an organizations performance. In order to more fully understand how upperlevel leaders affect organizational performance, we propose that a theory of executive leadership be developed. Guidelines are providedfor developing such a theory. Specifically, problems to avoid, methodologies to consider, and places to look for relevant theory are discussed.

Implicit leadership theory: A potential threat to the internal validity of leader behavior questionnaires

Abstract The effect of implicit leadership theories on consideration and initiating structure ratings from the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (XII) was investigated. Factor loadings obtained from students under a limited information condition were compared with those from reported field data. The consideration factors were found to be highly congruent, while initiating structure factors were moderately congruent. These results were consistent with comparisons from three additional samples varying in respondents familiarity with the leader. Cues regarding performance, sex, and level of accomplishment of the supervisor were also examined in the context of implicit theories. Performance cues were found to have a highly significant effect on subscale ratings. The effect for supervisors sex was marginally significant. Emphasizing behavior—attention—encoding—memory units inherent in such ratings, raters limited information processing capacity was suggested as a possible explanation of results. It was concluded, after considering the generalizability of results, that the findings posed a threat to the internal validity of behavioral questionnaires.

Self-Regulation at Work

Self-regulation at work is conceived in terms of within-person processes that occur over time. These processes are proposed to occur within a hierarchical framework of negative feedback systems that operate at different levels of abstraction and with different time cycles. Negative feedback systems respond to discrepancies in a manner that reduces deviations from standards (i.e., goals). This is in contrast to positive feedback systems in which discrepancies are created, which can lead to instability. We organize our discussion around four hierarchical levels-self, achievement task, lower-level task action, and knowledge/working memory. We theorize that these levels are loosely connected by multiple constraints and that both automatic and more conscious processes are essential to self-regulation. Within- and cross-level affective and cognitive processes interact within this system to motivate goal-related behaviors while also accessing needed knowledge and protecting current intentions from interference. Complications common in the work setting (as well as other complex, real-life settings) such as the simultaneous pursuit of multiple goals, the importance of knowledge access and expertise, and team and multiperson processes are also discussed. Finally, we highlight the usefulness of newer research methodologies and data-analytic techniques for examining such hierarchical, dynamic, within-person processes.

Action-state orientation : Construct validity of a revised measure and its relationship to work-related variables

Data from 6 studies (N = 945) were combined to examine the factor structure and construct validity of J. Kuhls (1994a) measure of action-state orientation, the Action Control Scale (ACS). Initial confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of 4 models showed poor fit with the data. Items that did not perform well were dropped, and the 4 CFA models were retested, resulting in support for a 3-factor solution corresponding to the Preoccupation, Hesitation, and Volatility subscales. Regression analyses demonstrated that the revised ACS subscales measure a construct distinct from cognitive ability and personality. The revised subscales showed differential statistically significant relationships with (a) self-regulatory and self-focus variables and (b) job attitudes and ratings of job performance. The authors conclude that action-state orientation is a construct relevant to applied settings and that future research should further examine this construct.