Robert Garofalo

Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender-Nonconforming People, Version 7

ABSTRACT The Standards of Care (SOC) for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender Nonconforming People is a publication of the World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH). The overall goal of the SOC is to provide clinical guidance for health professionals to assist transsexual, transgender, and gender nonconforming people with safe and effective pathways to achieving lasting personal comfort with their gendered selves, in order to maximize their overall health, psychological well-being, and self-fulfillment. This assistance may include primary care, gynecologic and urologic care, reproductive options, voice and communication therapy, mental health services (e.g., assessment, counseling, psychotherapy), and hormonal and surgical treatments. The SOC are based on the best available science and expert professional consensus. Because most of the research and experience in this field comes from a North American and Western European perspective, adaptations of the SOC to other parts of the world are necessary. The SOC articulate standards of care while acknowledging the role of making informed choices and the value of harm reduction approaches. In addition, this version of the SOC recognizes that treatment for gender dysphoria i.e., discomfort or distress that is caused by a discrepancy between persons gender identity and that persons sex assigned at birth (and the associated gender role and/or primary and secondary sex characteristics) has become more individualized. Some individuals who present for care will have made significant self-directed progress towards gender role changes or other resolutions regarding their gender identity or gender dysphoria. Other individuals will require more intensive services. Health professionals can use the SOC to help patients consider the full range of health services open to them, in accordance with their clinical needs and goals for gender expression.

Suicide and Suicide Risk in Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Populations: Review and Recommendations

Despite strong indications of elevated risk of suicidal behavior in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people, limited attention has been given to research, interventions or suicide prevention programs targeting these populations. This article is a culmination of a three-year effort by an expert panel to address the need for better understanding of suicidal behavior and suicide risk in sexual minority populations, and stimulate the development of needed prevention strategies, interventions and policy changes. This article summarizes existing research findings, and makes recommendations for addressing knowledge gaps and applying current knowledge to relevant areas of suicide prevention practice.

Psychosocial health problems increase risk for HIV among urban young men who have sex with men: preliminary evidence of a syndemic in need of attention.

Background: Young men who have sex with men (YMSM) experience disparities in HIV rates and potentially in mental health, substance abuse, and exposure to violence.Purpose: We assessed the extent to which these psychosocial health problems had an additive effect on increasing HIV risk among YMSM.Methods: An urban sample of 310 ethnically diverse YMSM reported on psychosocial health problems, sexual risk behaviors, and HIV status. A count of psychosocial health problems was calculated to test the additive relationship to HIV risk.Results: The prevalence of psychosocial health problems varied from 23% for regular binge drinking to 34% for experiencing partner violence. Rates of sexual risk behaviors were high and 14% of YMSM reported receiving a HIV + test result. Psychosocial health problems cooccurred, as evidenced by significant bivariate odds ratios (ORs) between 12 of the 15 associations tested. Number of psychosocial health problems significantly increased the odds of having multiple anal sex partners (OR=1.24), unprotected anal sex (OR=1.42), and an HIV-positive status (OR 1.42), after controlling for demographic factors.Conclusions: These data suggest the existence of cooccurring epidemics, or “syndemic,-of health problems among YMSM. Disparities exist not only in the prevalence of HIV among YMSM but also in research to combat the epidemic within this vulnerable population. Future research is needed to identify risk and resiliency factors across the range of health disparities and develop interventions that address this syndemic.

Mental health disorders, psychological distress, and suicidality in a diverse sample of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youths.

OBJECTIVES We examined associations of race/ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation with mental disorders among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youths. METHODS We assessed mental disorders by administering a structured diagnostic interview to a community sample of 246 LGBT youths aged 16 to 20 years. Participants also completed the Brief Symptom Inventory 18 (BSI 18). RESULTS One third of participants met criteria for any mental disorder, 17% for conduct disorder, 15% for major depression, and 9% for posttraumatic stress disorder. Anorexia and bulimia were rare. Lifetime suicide attempts were frequent (31%) but less so in the prior 12 months (7%). Few racial/ethnic and gender differences were statistically significant. Bisexually identified youths had lower prevalences of every diagnosis. The BSI 18 had high negative predictive power (90%) and low positive predictive power (25%) for major depression. CONCLUSIONS LGBT youths had higher prevalences of mental disorder diagnoses than youths in national samples, but were similar to representative samples of urban, racial/ethnic minority youths. Suicide behaviors were similar to those among representative youth samples in the same geographic area. Questionnaires measuring psychological distress may overestimate depression prevalence among this population.

Tip of the Iceberg: Young Men Who Have Sex With Men, the Internet, and HIV Risk

OBJECTIVES We examined the prevalence of Internet use for meeting sexual partners (Internet partners) and HIV risk behaviors associated with this use among young men who have sex with men (aged 16-24 years). METHODS A sample of 270 young men who have sex with men completed a computer-assisted survey. We used bivariate chi(2) analyses and hierarchical logistic regression to assess factors associated with Internet-facilitated sexual encounters. RESULTS Using the Internet to meet sexual partners was common; 48% of our sample had sexual relations with a partner they met online. Of these, only 53% used condoms consistently, and 47% reported having sexual partners older (>4 years) than themselves. Regression analyses showed increased age, White race/ethnicity, history of unprotected anal intercourse, multiple anal intercourse partners, and engaging in sexual activity at a sex club or a bathhouse were associated with meeting sexual partners through the Internet. Only history of unprotected anal intercourse was associated with risky sexual behaviors with Internet partners (P<0.025). CONCLUSIONS Young men who have sex with men and who seek partners online also engage in other behaviors that place them at risk for HIV and other sexually transmitted infections.

Syndemic theory and HIV-related risk among young transgender women: the role of multiple, co-occurring health problems and social marginalization.

OBJECTIVES We assessed whether multiple psychosocial factors are additive in their relationship to sexual risk behavior and self-reported HIV status (i.e., can be characterized as a syndemic) among young transgender women and the relationship of indicators of social marginalization to psychosocial factors. METHODS Participants (n = 151) were aged 15 to 24 years and lived in Chicago or Los Angeles. We collected data on psychosocial factors (low self-esteem, polysubstance use, victimization related to transgender identity, and intimate partner violence) and social marginalization indicators (history of commercial sex work, homelessness, and incarceration) through an interviewer-administered survey. RESULTS Syndemic factors were positively and additively related to sexual risk behavior and self-reported HIV infection. In addition, our syndemic index was significantly related to 2 indicators of social marginalization: a history of sex work and previous incarceration. CONCLUSIONS These findings provide evidence for a syndemic of co-occurring psychosocial and health problems in young transgender women, taking place in a context of social marginalization.

Mental Health of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youths: A Developmental Resiliency Perspective

Research suggests that lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) youths are at increased risk for both victimization and internalizing mental health problems, but limited research has studied their association or factors that increase resilience. The sample in this study included 425 LGBs between the ages of 16 and 24 years. The majority had disclosed their sexual orientation to family or friends (98%), and 97% had someone in their lives who was accepting of their orientation. Racial/ethnic minority and female participants in general reported lower levels of disclosure and acceptance. Most participants reported some form of sexual orientation-related victimization (94%). Victimization was associated with psychological distress, but a compensatory model indicated that in the context of this victimization both peer and family support had significant promotive effects. A test of a protective model found social support did not ameliorate negative effects of victimization. The positive effects of family support decreased with age. Peer and family support were particularly important, but they did not significantly dampen the negative effects of victimization. Findings suggest that mental health professionals working with LGB youths should address social support and that public health approaches are needed to reduce levels of victimization.

Improving adherence to antiretroviral therapy for youth living with HIV/AIDS: a pilot study using personalized, interactive, daily text message reminders.

Background For youth living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), nonadherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) can lead to poor health outcomes and significantly decreased life expectancy. Objective To evaluate the feasability, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of short message service (SMS) or text message reminders to improve adherence to ART for youth living with HIV/AIDS. Methods We conducted this prospective pilot study using a pre–post design from 2009 to 2010 at a community-based health center providing clinical services to youth living with HIV/AIDS. Eligibility criteria included HIV-positive serostatus, age 14–29 years, use of a personal cell phone, English-speaking, and being on ART with documented poor adherence. During the 24-week study period, participants received personalized daily SMS reminders and a follow-up message 1 hour later assessing whether they took the medication, and asking participants to respond via text message with the number 1 if they took the medication and 2 if they did not. Outcome measures were feasibility, acceptability, and adherence. Self-reported adherence was determined using the visual analog scale (VAS) and AIDS Clinical Trial Group (ACTG) questionnaire 4-day recall. Viral load and CD4 cell count were followed as biomarkers of adherence and disease progression at 0, 12, and 24 weeks. Results Participants (N = 25) were mean age 23 (range 14–29) years, 92% (n = 23) male, 60% (n = 15) black, and 84% (n = 21) infected through unprotected sex. Mean VAS scores significantly increased at 12 and 24 weeks in comparison with baseline (week 0: 74.7, week 12: 93.3, P < .001; week 24: 93.1, P < .001). ACTG questionnaire 4-day recall also improved (week 0: 2.33, week 12: 3.24, P = .002; week 24: 3.19, P = .005). There was no significant difference in CD4 cell count or viral load between baseline and 12- or 24-week follow-up, although there was a trend toward improvement of these biomarkers and a small to moderate standardized effect size (range of Cohen d: –0.51 to 0.22). Of 25 participants, 21 (84%) were retained, and 20 of the 21 (95%) participants who completed the study found the intervention helpful to avoid missing doses. Conclusions In this pilot study, personalized, interactive, daily SMS reminders were feasible and acceptable, and they significantly improved self-reported adherence. Larger controlled studies are needed to determine the impact of this intervention on ART adherence and other related health outcomes for youth living with HIV/AIDS.

Experiences of HIV-related stigma among young men who have sex with men.

Young men who have sex with men (MSM) represent an increasing number of new HIV infections in many communities. Many individuals still hold beliefs that may lead to discrimination against HIV-positive individuals. HIV stigma is associated with negative health and psychosocial outcomes and may lead to greater challenges for this marginalized population. This study describes stigma experienced by HIV-positive young MSM, explores its relationship to psychosocial measures, and tests the hypothesis that stigma scores will be higher in those diagnosed less than 1 year ago versus more than 1 year. From August 2004 to September 2005 young MSM completed a questionnaire including demographic information and psychosocial measures. Descriptive and bivariate analyses of association were used to interpret data from the total stigma scale and four subscales: personalized stigma (PS), public attitudes (PA), negative self-image (NSI), and disclosure concerns (DC). Index scores were calculated by standardizing each subscale for direct comparisons. The 42 participants were: mean 21.3 years; 45% black, 24% Hispanic, 26% white; 14% transgender; and 50% diagnosed HIV-positive less than 1 year. Participants reported HIV-related stigma across all domains with mean index subscale scores: PS 0.57, PA 0.61, NSI 0.63, DC 0.75 indicating that disclosure concerns were prevalent in comparison to other forms of HIV-related stigma. Stigma scores correlated with depression, social support, self-esteem, and romantic loneliness. Stigma scores did not differ for those diagnosed less than 1 year ago versus more than 1 year ago. Providers should address HIV-related stigma concerns, particularly disclosure, throughout the trajectory of the illness when caring for HIV-positive young MSM as a factor affecting health outcomes and psychosocial functioning.

Transgender Female Youth and Sex Work: HIV Risk and a Comparison of Life Factors Related to Engagement in Sex Work

This study examined the HIV risk behaviors and life experiences of 151 transgender female youth, ages 15–24, in Los Angeles and Chicago. Descriptive analyses and logistic regression modeling were used to identify life factors associated with ever having engaged in sex work. Sixty-seven percent of participants had ever engaged in sex work and 19% self-reported being HIV positive. Many factors were significantly associated with sex work for this sample population. A final multivariate logistic regression model found that lower education status, homelessness, use of street drugs, and perceived social support remained significantly associated with sex work when controlling for other factors. Findings highlight the complex HIV risk environment and suggest a need for sex work initiation research for transgender female youth. HIV prevention efforts for this population need to include broad-based approaches that take into account individual, social, and community-level factors relevant to the lives of transgender female youth.