Robert Hindges

EphB Forward Signaling Controls Directional Branch Extension and Arborization Required for Dorsal-Ventral Retinotopic Mapping

We report that EphB receptors direct unique axonal behaviors required for mapping the dorsal-ventral (D-V) retinal axis along the lateral-medial (L-M) axis of the superior colliculus (SC). EphBs are expressed in a D-V gradient, ephrin-B1 in a L-M gradient in SC, and ephrin-B3 at its midline. EphBs and ephrin-Bs are expressed in countergradients in retina and SC. Developmental analyses reveal that retinal axons lack D-V ordering along the L-M axis, but directionally extend branches along it to establish ordered arbors. Directed branch extension is disrupted in EphB2; EphB3-deficient mice resulting in lateral ectopic arbors. Mice with kinase-inactive EphB2 have similar D-V mapping defects indicating that forward signaling dominates over reverse signaling. Our data suggest that branches of EphB expressing axons are attracted medially by ephrin-B1, and provide molecular mechanisms for D-V mapping in visual centers.

Regulation of DNA replication and repair proteins through interaction with the front side of proliferating cell nuclear antigen

The DNA polymerase accessory factor proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) has been caught in interaction with an ever increasing number of proteins. To characterize the sites and functions of some of these interactions, we constructed four mutants of human PCNA and analysed them in a variety of assays. By targeting loops on the surface of the PCNA trimer and changing three or four residues at a time to alanine, we found that a region including part of the domain‐connecting loop of PCNA and loops on one face of the trimer, close to the C‐termini, is involved in binding to all of the following proteins: DNA polymerase δ, replication factor C, the flap endonuclease Fen1, the cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor p21 and DNA ligase I. An inhibition of DNA ligation caused by the interaction of PCNA with DNA ligase I was found, and we show that DNA ligase I and Fen1 can inhibit DNA synthesis by DNA polymerase δ/PCNA. We demonstrate that PCNA must be located below a 5′ flap on a forked template to stimulate Fen1 activity, and considering the interacting region on PCNA for Fen1, this suggests an orientation for PCNA during DNA replication with the C‐termini facing forwards, in the direction of DNA synthesis.

Regulation of axial patterning of the retina and its topographic mapping in the brain

Topographic maps are a fundamental organizational feature of axonal connections in the brain. A prominent model for studying axial polarity and topographic map development is the vertebrate retina and its projection to the optic tectum (or superior colliculus). Linked processes are controlled by molecules that are graded along the axes of the retina and its target fields. Recent studies indicate that ephrin-As control the temporal-nasal mapping of the retina in the optic tectum/superior colliculus by regulating the topographically-specific interstitial branching of retinal axons along the anterior-posterior tectal axis. This branching is mediated by relative levels of EphA receptor repellent signaling. A major recent advance is the demonstration that EphB receptor forward signaling and ephrin-B reverse signaling mediate axon attraction to control dorsal-ventral retinal mapping along the lateral-medial tectal axis. In addition, several classes of regulatory proteins have been implicated in the control of the axial patterning of the retina, and its ultimate readout of topographic mapping.

Double‐check probing of DNA bending and unwinding by XPA–RPA: an architectural function in DNA repair

The multiprotein factor composed of XPA and replication protein A (RPA) is an essential subunit of the mammalian nucleotide excision repair system. Although XPA–RPA has been implicated in damage recognition, its activity in the DNA repair pathway remains controversial. By replacing DNA adducts with mispaired bases or non‐hybridizing analogues, we found that the weak preference of XPA and RPA for damaged substrates is entirely mediated by indirect readout of DNA helix conformations. Further screening with artificially distorted substrates revealed that XPA binds most efficiently to rigidly bent duplexes but not to single‐stranded DNA. Conversely, RPA recognizes single‐stranded sites but not backbone bending. Thus, the association of XPA with RPA generates a double‐check sensor that detects, simultaneously, backbone and base pair distortion of DNA. The affinity of XPA for sharply bent duplexes, characteristic of architectural proteins, is not compatible with a direct function during recognition of nucleotide lesions. Instead, XPA in conjunction with RPA may constitute a regulatory factor that monitors DNA bending and unwinding to verify the damage‐specific localization of repair complexes or control their correct three‐dimensional assembly.

A TrkB/EphrinA Interaction Controls Retinal Axon Branching and Synaptogenesis

Toward understanding topographically specific branching of retinal axons in their target area, we have studied the interaction between neurotrophin receptors and members of the Eph family. TrkB and its ligand BDNF are uniformly expressed in the retina and tectum, respectively, and exert a branch-promoting activity, whereas EphAs and ephrinAs are expressed in gradients in retina and tectum and can mediate a suppression of axonal branching. We have identified a novel cis interaction between ephrinA5 and TrkB on retinal ganglion cell axons. TrkB interacts with ephrinA5 via its second cysteine-rich domain (CC2), which is necessary and sufficient for binding to ephrinA5. Their functional interaction is twofold: ephrinA5 augments BDNF-promoted retinal axon branching in the absence of its activator EphA7–Fc, whereas EphA7–Fc application abolishes branching in a local and concentration-dependent manner. The importance of TrkB in this process is shown by the fact that overexpression of an isolated TrkB–CC2 domain interfering with the ephrinA/TrkB interaction abolishes this regulatory interplay, whereas knockdown of TrkB via RNA interference diminishes the ephrinA5-evoked increase in branching. The ephrinA/Trk interaction is neurotrophin induced and specifically augments the PI-3 kinase/Akt pathway generally known to be involved in the promotion of branching. In addition, ephrinAs/TrkB modulate axon branching and also synapse formation of hippocampal neurons. Our findings uncover molecular mechanisms of how spatially restricted axon branching can be achieved by linking globally expressed branch-promoting with differentially expressed branch-suppressing activities. In addition, our data suggest that growth factors and the EphA–ephrinA system interact in a way that affects axon branching and synapse development.

Magnitude of Binocular Vision Controlled by Islet-2 Repression of a Genetic Program that Specifies Laterality of Retinal Axon Pathfinding

Pathfinding of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons at the midline optic chiasm determines whether RGCs project to ipsilateral or contralateral brain visual centers, critical for binocular vision. Using Isl2tau-lacZ knockin mice, we show that the LIM-homeodomain transcription factor Isl2 marks only contralaterally projecting RGCs. The transcription factor Zic2 and guidance receptor EphB1, required by RGCs to project ipsilaterally, colocalize in RGCs distinct from Isl2 RGCs in the ventral-temporal crescent (VTC), the source of ipsilateral projections. Isl2 knockout mice have an increased ipsilateral projection originating from significantly more RGCs limited to the VTC. Isl2 knockouts also have increased Zic2 and EphB1 expression and significantly more Zic2 RGCs in the VTC. We conclude that Isl2 specifies RGC laterality by repressing an ipsilateral pathfinding program unique to VTC RGCs and involving Zic2 and EphB1. This genetic hierarchy controls binocular vision by regulating the magnitude and source of ipsilateral projections and reveals unique retinal domains.

MyosinV controls PTEN function and neuronal cell size

The tumour suppressor PTEN can inhibit cell proliferation and migration as well as control cell growth, in different cell types. PTEN functions predominately as a lipid phosphatase, converting PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 to PtdIns(4,5)P2, thereby antagonizing PI(3)K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) and its established downstream effector pathways. However, much is unclear concerning the mechanisms that regulate PTEN movement to the cell membrane, which is necessary for its activity towards PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 (Refs 3, 4, 5). Here we show a requirement for functional motor proteins in the control of PI3K signalling, involving a previously unknown association between PTEN and myosinV. FRET (Förster resonance energy transfer) measurements revealed that PTEN interacts directly with myosinV, which is dependent on PTEN phosphorylation mediated by CK2 and/or GSK3. Inactivation of myosinV-transport function in neurons increased cell size, which, in line with known attributes of PTEN-loss, required PI(3)K and mTor. Our data demonstrate a myosin-based transport mechanism that regulates PTEN function, providing new insights into the signalling networks regulating cell growth.

Perturbations of microRNA function in mouse dicer mutants produce retinal defects and lead to aberrant axon pathfinding at the optic chiasm.

Background During development axons encounter a variety of choice points where they have to make appropriate pathfinding decisions. The optic chiasm is a major decision point for retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons en route to their target in order to ensure the correct wiring of the visual system. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) belong to the class of small non-coding RNA molecules and have been identified as important regulators of a variety of processes during embryonic development. However, their involvement in axon guidance decisions is less clear. Methodology/Principal Findings We report here that the early loss of Dicer, an essential protein for the maturation of miRNAs, in all cells of the forming retina and optic chiasm leads to severe phenotypes of RGC axon pathfinding at the midline. Using a conditional deletion approach in mice, we find in homozygous Dicer mutants a marked increase of ipsilateral projections, RGC axons extending outside the optic chiasm, the formation of a secondary optic tract and a substantial number of RGC axons projecting aberrantly into the contralateral eye. In addition, the mutant mice display a microphthalmia phenotype. Conclusions Our work demonstrates an important role of Dicer controlling the extension of RGC axons to the brain proper. It indicates that miRNAs are essential regulatory elements for mechanisms that ensure correct axon guidance decisions at the midline and thus have a central function in the establishment of circuitry during the development of the nervous system.

Consequences of cancer treatments on adult hippocampal neurogenesis: implications for cognitive function and depressive symptoms.

The human brain is capable of generating new functional neurons throughout life, a phenomenon known as adult neurogenesis. The generation of new neurons is sustained throughout adulthood due to the proliferation and differentiation of adult neural stem cells. This process in humans is uniquely located in the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) is thought to play a major role in hippocampus-dependent functions, such as spatial awareness, long-term memory, emotionality, and mood. The overall aim of current treatments for cancer (such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy) is to prevent aberrant cell division of cell populations associated with malignancy. However, the treatments in question are absolutist in nature and hence inhibit all cell division. An unintended consequence of this cessation of cell division is the impairment of adult neural stem cell proliferation and AHN. Patients undergoing treatment for cancerous malignancies often display specific forms of memory deficits, as well as depressive symptoms. This review aims to discuss the effects of cancer treatments on AHN and propose a link between the inhibition of the neurogenetic process in the hippocampus and the advent of the cognitive and mood-based deficits observed in patients and animal models undergoing cancer therapies. Possible evidence for coadjuvant interventions aiming to protect neural cells, and subsequently the mood and cognitive functions they regulate, from the ablative effects of cancer treatment are discussed as potential clinical tools to improve mental health among cancer patients.

BDNF Promotes Axon Branching of Retinal Ganglion Cells via miRNA-132 and p250GAP

A crucial step in the development of the vertebrate visual system is the branching of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons within their target, the superior colliculus/tectum. A major player in this process is the neurotrophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). However, the molecular basis for the signaling pathways mediating BDNF action is less well understood. As BDNF exerts some of its functions by controlling the expression of microRNAs (miRNAs), we investigated whether miRNAs are also involved in BDNF-mediated retinal axon branching. Here, we demonstrate that the expression pattern of miRNA-132 in the retina is consistent with its involvement in this process, and that BDNF induces the upregulation of miRNA-132 in retinal cultures. Furthermore, in vitro gain-of-function and loss-of-function approaches in retinal cultures reveal that miRNA-132 mediates axon branching downstream of BDNF. A known target of miRNA-132 is the Rho family GTPase-activating protein, p250GAP. We find that p250GAP is expressed in RGC axons and mediates the effects of miRNA-132 in BDNF-induced branching. BDNF treatment or overexpression of miRNA-132 leads to a reduction in p250GAP protein levels in retinal cultures, whereas the overexpression of p250GAP abolishes BDNF-induced branching. Finally, we used a loss-of-function approach to show that miRNA-132 affects the maturation of RGC termination zones in the mouse superior colliculus in vivo, while their topographic targeting remains intact. Together, our data indicate that BDNF promotes RGC axon branching during retinocollicular/tectal map formation via upregulation of miRNA-132, which in turn downregulates p250GAP.