Robert J. Jagers

Communalism: Conceptualization and Measurement of an Afrocultural Social Orientation

In recent years there has been an upsurge of interest in expressions of cultural integrity among African Americans. Many more recent efforts have argued that such expressions of integrity are rooted in an African cultural legacy and that these Afrocultural expressions continue to help shape the contours and textures of the African American experience (e.g., Boykin, 1983, 1986; Nobles, 1991; Stuckey, 1987; Thompson, 1983). Among expressions thought to be embodied in this cultural legacy are the following: spirituality, which suggests a focus on the vitalistic, shared essence of all things; the oral tradition, which places a premium on the spoken word; rhythmic-movement expressiveness; and communalism, which highlights the social interdependence of people (e.g., Boykin, 1983, 1986; Dixon, 1976; Jones, 1991; Nobles, 1974, 1991). Although postulated, there have been few systematic efforts within the psychological literature to document the coherency andIn recent years there has been an upsurge of interest in expressions of cultural integrity among African Americans. Many more recent efforts have argued that such expressions of integrity are rooted in an African cultural legacy and that these Afrocultural expressions continue to help shape the contours and textures of the African American experience (e.g., Boykin, 1983, 1986; Nobles, 1991; Stuckey, 1987; Thompson, 1983). Among expressions thought to be embodied in this cultural legacy are the following: spirituality, which suggests a focus on the vitalistic, shared essence of all things; the oral tradition, which places a premium on the spoken word; rhythmic-movement expressiveness; and communalism, which highlights the social interdependence of people (e.g., Boykin, 1983, 1986; Dixon, 1976; Jones, 1991; Nobles, 1974, 1991). Although postulated, there have been few systematic efforts within the psychological literature to document the coherency and

Further Examination of the Spirituality Scale

This study provides additional data on a newly developed paper-and-pencil measure of spirituality from an Afrocultural perspective. Sixty-eight African American and 75 European American college students completed the Spirituality Scale and indices of internal, external, and quest religious motivation, divine and personal agency, and religious and existential well-being. Results indicated that the Spirituality Scale had good internal consistency in both cultural groups and that the level of endorsement of females was significantly higher than that of males. However, after adjusting for gender effects, mean scale endorsement was significantly higher among African Americans than it was among European Americans. There were few differences in the patterns of bivariate correlations. Standard regression procedures yielded significant, but different, predictive models of Spirituality Scale scores for both groups. For African Americans, an internal religious motivation was predictive of scores on the Spirituality Scale. Divine causality and religious well-being emerged as predictors for Spirituality Scale scoresfor European Americans. The discussion highlightsfuture directions for research using the Spirituality Scale.

Culture and Social Outcomes among Inner-City African American Children: An Afrographic Exploration

This study employs the Triple Quandaryframework as a paradigmfor describing the cultural orientations of 50 inner-city African American sixth graders. The implications of the relative endorsement of these orientations and some specific expressionsfor social outcomes of empathy, Machiavellianism, delinquency, and aggression were also examined. Three cultural orientations-Anglocultural, marginalized minority, and Afrocultural as well as the component Afrocultural expressions of spirituality, communalism, and affect were operationalized. Results indicated greater endorsement of an Afrocultural orientation than of either of the other two. Greaterdivergence betweenAfrocultural variables and the other cultural orientations were associated with lower levels of undesirable attitudes and behaviors. This was particularly true of an Anglocultural orientation. Findings are discussed in terms of the methodological limitations and the apparent negative impact of an Anglocultural orientation among African American children. Directions forfuture research are considered.

The Moderating Effects of Culture on Peer Deviance and Alcohol Use among High-Risk African-American Adolescents

African-American adolescents have lower rates of alcohol consumption than White youth. However, African-American youth suffer disproportionately more adverse social, mental, and physical health outcomes related to alcohol use. Affiliating with negative peers is a risk factor for alcohol initiation and consumption. Cultural variables have shown moderating effects against other risk factors for African-American youth and therefore were the focus of this study. Specifically, we tested whether three culturally-relevant variables, Africentric beliefs, religiosity, and ethnic identity were promotive or protective for alcohol initiation and use within the context of negative peer affiliations. The sample consisted of 114 at-risk African-American adolescents whose ages ranged from 13 to 20. Participants were administered a questionnaire with measures of alcohol initiation and use, peer risk behaviors, ethnic identity, Africentric beliefs, religiosity, and demographic items. Peer risk behaviors accounted for significant percentages of the variance in age of alcohol initiation, lifetime use, and current and heavy alcohol use after adjusting for age and gender. Cultural variables showed both promotive and protective effects. Africentric beliefs were promotive of delayed alcohol initiation, whereas both Africentrism and religiosity moderated peer risk behaviors effect on alcohol initiation. Africentric beliefs were also inversely related to lifetime alcohol use revealing a promotive effect. Moreover, there were significant protective effects of ethnic identity and religiosity on heavy alcohol consumption. One implication of these findings is that prevention programs that infuse cultural values and practices such as Africentrism, ethnic identity, and religiosity may delay alcohol initiation and reduce use especially for youth with high risk peers.

The Communalism Scale and Collectivistic-Individualistic Tendencies: Some Preliminary Findings

Communalism is an Afrocultural dimension that highlights the fundamental interdependence of people. This two-part study provided data on the construct validity of a newly developed Communalism Scale by exploring its relationship with indexes of collectivistic and individualistic tendencies. One hundred and ten African American college students completed the Communalism Scale and indexes of self-concept and interpersonal attitudes. Eighty-six students returned to complete measures of values and in-group identifications. Results conformed largely to expectations. Communalism Scale scores were negatively correlated with individualistic attitudes. Positive relationships werefound between communalism scores and collectivistic attitudes, values, and perceived similarity to parents, relatives, and ethnic group. Discussion focuses on the implications for future research using the Communalism Scale.

It'll Never Be the White Kids, It'll Always Be Us: Black High School Students' Evolving Critical Analysis of Racial Discrimination and Inequity in Schools.

We examine how Black high school students, participants in a Youth Participatory Action Research (YPAR) program, understand issues of racial discrimination and inequality in their schools. Through semi-structured individual interviews conducted early in the program, eight students (six boys and two girls) recount experiences of racial stereotyping, discrimination from teachers and staff, lack of institutional support for a positive racial climate, and lack of racial diversity in curricular offerings. Further, through evolving critical analysis supported by the YPAR experience, these students describe rationale for and implications of such negative race-based educational experiences. Findings reveal how Black adolescents interpret the racial discrimination and inequality they experience in school and the implications of parental and community socialization on the development of a critical understanding of race-based social inequalities.

An Afrocultural Social Ethos: Component Orientations and Some Social Implications

Two studies explored an Afrocultural social ethos: its component orientations of spirituality, affect, and communalism; and their connections with psychosocial functioning among inner-city African American youth in Grades 5 through 7. Positive endorsement and moderate positive correlations among the orientations were found in each study. In Study 1, an Afrocultural social ethos was predictive of more cooperative and more competitive academic attitudes and lower levels of a Machiavellian attitude. When orientations were examined, spirituality emerged as a positive predictor of two academic attitudes. In Study 2, an Afrocultural social ethos was predictive of empathy and a more altruistic view of human nature. At the level of orientations, affect was a unique predictor of these variables. Gender-not cultural ethos or orientations-was predictive of peer-ratedprosocial behaviors. Discussionfocuses on implicationsforfuture research on culture and the social development of African American youth.

Predictors of Moral Reasoning among African American Children: A Preliminary Study

This study examined the ways in which gender, empathy, and cultural orientation (communalism and competitive individualism) influence the moral judgments of urban fifth and eighth grade African American children. Pencil and paper measures of these constructs were completed by 44 fifth and 46 eighth graders. Results revealed greater endorsement of communalism among girls than boys. Separate correlation matrices and path analysis models were computed for girls and boys. Communalism, empathy, and grade emerged as significant correlates and predictors of moral reasoning among boys. Empathy emerged as a mediator between communalism and moral reasoning for boys. Grade was the only significant correlate and predictor of moral reasoning for girls. The findings are discussed in terms of the study’s methodological limitations and implications for future research on African American culture and moral development.

Connecting Self-Esteem and Achievement Diversity in Academic Identification and Dis-identification Patterns Among Black College Students

Using a person-oriented approach, we explored patterns of self-esteem and achievement among 324 Black college students across the freshman college year and identified four academic identification profiles. Multivariate analyses revealed profile differences in academic and psychological outcomes at beginning and end of freshman year (academic contingencies of self-esteem, anxiety, depressive symptoms, perceived stress), suggesting different conditions under which connections between self-esteem and achievement relate to positive or negative adjustment. Results also suggested a strong, positive racial group identification supports psychologically adaptive connections between self-esteem and achievement. Findings highlight challenges and benefits of connecting self-esteem to achievement for Black college students, heterogeneity within this population, and the relevance of considering race and cultural factors when studying achievement motivation processes among Black students.

Mediators of the Development and Prevention of Violent Behavior

The purpose of this investigation was to determine if the Aban Aya Youth Project, a culturally grounded intervention, produced differences in changes over time in core intervening variables (i.e., communal value orientation, empathy, violence avoidance efficacy beliefs) and whether these variables mediated intervention effects on the development of youth violent behavior. Fifth grade cohorts at 12 schools were randomly assigned to one of two intervention conditions or an attention placebo control condition and followed longitudinally through eighth grade. A total of 668 students (49% male) participated in the study. Mediation analyses suggested that both program conditions (as compared to the control condition) led to steeper increases over time in empathy which, in turn were related to reductions in the likelihood of violent behavior over time. No other significant program effects were detected, although changes over time in violence avoidance efficacy were associated with reduced likelihood of violent behavior. Findings are discussed in terms of theory development, program development and points of refinement of the Aban Aya Youth Project and implications for future research.