Robert J. Kaminski

THE USE OF FORCE BETWEEN THE POLICE AND PERSONS WITH IMPAIRED JUDGMENT

This article examines the effects of perceived impaired judgment due to mental illness, drugs, or alcohol among a sample of arrestees on police use of force and other outcomes. Using a combined measure of impairment, bivariate analysis of more than 2,000 arrests made by officers from a large southeastern municipal police department suggests that persons with perceived impaired judgment were only mildly problematic for police in this study. Multiple regression analysis of the effects of perceived judgmental impairment on use of force indicates it significantly increased the odds that higher levels of force were used, but the influence of this factor was less than the influence of other factors commonly examined in use-of-force studies. Additional analysis using a disaggregated measure of perceived impaired judgment reveals that the significant effect of the combined measure is a function of suspected drug intoxication rather than suspected alcohol intoxication or mental illness.

The Effect of Less-Lethal Weapons on Injuries in Police Use-of-Force Events

OBJECTIVES We investigated the effect of the use of less-lethal weapons, conductive energy devices (CEDs), and oleoresin capsicum (OC) spray on the prevalence and incidence of injuries to police officers and civilians in encounters involving the use of force. METHODS We analyzed data from 12 police departments that documented injuries to officers and civilians in 24,380 cases. We examined monthly injury rates for 2 police departments before and after their adoption of CEDs. RESULTS Odds of injury to civilians and officers were significantly lower when police used CED weapons, after control for differences in case attributes and departmental policies restricting use of these weapons. Monthly incidence of injury in 2 police departments declined significantly, by 25% to 62%, after adoption of CED devices. CONCLUSIONS Injuries sustained during police use-of-force events affect thousands of police officers and civilians in the United States each year. Incidence of these injuries can be reduced dramatically when law enforcement agencies responsibly employ less-lethal weapons in lieu of physical force.

The effect of a violent televised arrest on public perceptions of the police

A sizable literature exists showing that the general public is supportive of the police, but that substantial differences exist in levels of support among minorities and whites. Few studies, however, have examined the impact of violent police‐citizen encounters on perceptions of the police. Using survey data from a random sample of Cincinnati residents over an 11‐year period, we examine the effect of a violent televised arrest of an African‐American youth on minority and white opinions of the police. Furthermore, we interpret the results of the analysis in the context of Easton’s (1965) theory on diffuse and specific support for political institutions. The results suggest that although substantial differences exist among minorities and whites in their levels of support for the police, most indicators of diffuse support were unaffected by the controversial televised arrest.

Trust in the Police The Influence of Procedural Justice and Perceived Collective Efficacy

Tyler’s process-based model of policing suggests that the police can enhance their perceived legitimacy and trustworthiness in the eyes of the public when they exercise their authority in a procedurally fair manner. To date, most process-based research has focused on the sources of legitimacy while largely overlooking trust in the police. The present study extends this line of literature by examining the sources of trust in the police. In particular, emerging research has revealed that neighborhood context influences attitudes toward the police but much less attention has been given to exploring the role individuals’ perceptions of their neighborhood play in shaping such evaluations. Therefore, the present study considers whether individuals’ perceptions of collective efficacy serve as a social-psychological cognitive orientation that influences levels of trust in the police. Using data from a recently conducted mail survey of a random sample of 1,681 residents from a metropolitan city, we find that procedural justice evaluations are a primary source of trust in the police. At the same time, however, level of perceived collective efficacy is positively associated with trust even after accounting for procedural justice. The findings suggest that police procedural fairness is vitally important to establishing trust from the public but peoples’ cognitive orientation toward their neighborhood context partially shapes the level of trustworthiness they afford to the police.

The impact of conducted energy devices and other types of force and resistance on officer and suspect injuries

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the effect of police use of conducted energy devices (CEDs) on officer and suspect injuries while controlling for other types of force and resistance and other factors.Design/methodology/approach – Data on 1,645 use‐of‐force incidents occurring between January 1, 2002 and July 2006 were obtained from two different law enforcement agencies. Logistic and generalized ordered logistic regressions are used to model the odds of injury and severity of injury.Findings – The use of CEDs was associated with reduced odds of officer and suspect injury and the severity of suspect injury in one agency. In the other agency CED use was unrelated to the odds of injury; however, the use of pepper spray was associated with reduced odds of suspect injury. Among other findings, in both agencies the use of hands‐on tactics by police was associated with increased odds of officer and suspect injury, while the use of canines was associated with increased odds of suspect injury.Res...

The Effects of Peer Group Climate on Intimate Partner Violence among Married Male U.S. Army Soldiers

This study examined the combined impact of individual-level and group-level variables on self-reported intimate partner violence, operationally defined as mild to severe physical aggression on the Modified Conflict Tactics Scale, among married male U.S. Army soldiers. The sample comprised 713 servicemen from 27 companies stationed at an Army post in the Alaskan interior. Group-level variables were based on individual reports on various dimensions of group climate aggregated at the company level. Contextual analyses were conducted using a variety of regression approaches. Individual-level predictor variables significantly associated with intimate partner violence included race, symptoms of depression, poor marital adjustment, alcohol problems, and a history of childhood abuse. Group-level predictor variables significantly associated with intimate partner violence included lower leadership support (vertical cohesion), a culture of hyper-masculinity (operationally defined as increased group disrespect), and lower support for spouses.

Assessing the incapacitative effects of pepper spray during resistive encounters with the police

This article investigates the effectiveness of pepper spray as a means of aiding arrest. The authors aim to provide a more rigorous study than has previously been achieved. Data from the Baltimore County Police Department have been used in this analysis. The evaluation undertaken has taken into account the “effective‐ineffective” dichotomy of the incapacitating effects of pepper spray as well as whether those being arrested were drunk, under the influence of drugs or mentally disturbed. Five variables of age, weight, height, race and sex were also recorded, the latter three having little or no effect. The overall conclusion which is drawn is that using pepper spray eases arrest in the majority of instances. The conclusions drawn leave the way open for further detailed analysis of the use of the spray to ease arrest.

Institutional Responses to Self-Injurious Behavior Among Inmates

To date, little research has systematically investigated perceptions of mental health professionals regarding motivations for self-injury among prison inmates. To help fill this gap, the authors used descriptive techniques to examine self-injurious behavior among inmates from the perspective of correctional mental health professionals. A quantitative survey assessed perceptions of mental health staff regarding etiology, motivations, and manifestations of self-injury. A qualitative interview component was used to explicate responses from the survey. Inmate cutting, scratching, opening old wounds, and inserting objects were the most commonly witnessed behaviors. Findings suggest that self-injury occurred regularly and that a subset of inmates are responsible for recurrent events. Mental health professionals perceived the motivation for inmate self-injury to be both manipulative and a coping mechanism. They described current management strategies and corresponding needs for training and resources.

COMMUNITY CORRELATES OF SERIOUS ASSAULTS ON POLICE

Violence against police officers is a widely held concern for the law enforcement profession. Prior research into this problem has focused almost exclusively on individual, situational, or ecological correlates at the city or higher levels of aggregation rather than at the neighborhood level, potentially masking important local variation. This study examines block-group-level risk factors for serious assaults on police from a criminal opportunity perspective. Data for the study included 603 aggravated assaults on police in Boston, arrestee location data, violent crimes known to the police for the years 1993 to 1999, and 1990 census data. Findings indicate strong associations between serious assaults on police and block groups characterized by high arrestee density, criminogenic conditions, and propensity for violence.

The Temporal Relationship Between Police Killings of Civilians and Criminal Homicide: A Refined Version of the Danger-Perception Theory

The connection between police use of deadly force and the criminal homicide rate has long been recognized in the literature. Their temporal relationship, however, has seldom been examined. The present study suggests that earlier research has underestimated the importance of the temporal relationship between the homicides that present the greatest level of public danger and police use of deadly force. This research suggests that police use of deadly force can best be understood through a “ratio-threat” version of the danger-perception theory. Through a time-series analysis of data from the Federal Bureau of Investigations Supplementary Homicide Reports over a 21-year period, the ratio-threat hypothesis is confirmed. The results suggest that, on a national level, there exists a temporal connection between predatory crime and police use of deadly force. Implications for theory and future research are discussed.