Robert J. Rolls

Conceptualising the interactive effects of climate change and biological invasions on subarctic freshwater fish

Abstract Climate change and species invasions represent key threats to global biodiversity. Subarctic freshwaters are sentinels for understanding both stressors because the effects of climate change are disproportionately strong at high latitudes and invasion of temperate species is prevalent. Here, we summarize the environmental effects of climate change and illustrate the ecological responses of freshwater fishes to these effects, spanning individual, population, community and ecosystem levels. Climate change is modifying hydrological cycles across atmospheric, terrestrial and aquatic components of subarctic ecosystems, causing increases in ambient water temperature and nutrient availability. These changes affect the individual behavior, habitat use, growth and metabolism, alter population spawning and recruitment dynamics, leading to changes in species abundance and distribution, modify food web structure, trophic interactions and energy flow within communities and change the sources, quantity and quality of energy and nutrients in ecosystems. Increases in temperature and its variability in aquatic environments underpin many ecological responses; however, altered hydrological regimes, increasing nutrient inputs and shortened ice cover are also important drivers of climate change effects and likely contribute to context‐dependent responses. Species invasions are a complex aspect of the ecology of climate change because the phenomena of invasion are both an effect and a driver of the ecological consequences of climate change. Using subarctic freshwaters as an example, we illustrate how climate change can alter three distinct aspects of species invasions: (1) the vulnerability of ecosystems to be invaded, (2) the potential for species to spread and invade new habitats, and (3) the subsequent ecological effects of invaders. We identify three fundamental knowledge gaps focused on the need to determine (1) how environmental and landscape characteristics influence the ecological impact of climate change, (2) the separate and combined effects of climate and non‐native invading species and (3) the underlying ecological processes or mechanisms responsible for changes in patterns of biodiversity.

Cattle-derived microbial input to source water catchments: an experimental assessment of stream crossing modification

The provision of safe drinking water is a global issue, and animal production is recognized as a significant potential origin of human infectious pathogenic microorganisms within source water catchments. On-farm management can be used to mitigate livestock-derived microbial pollution in source water catchments to reduce the risk of contamination to potable water supplies. We applied a modified Before-After Control Impact (BACI) design to test if restricting the access of livestock to direct contact with streams prevented longitudinal increases in the concentrations of faecal indicator bacteria and suspended solids. Significant longitudinal increases in pollutant concentrations were detected between upstream and downstream reaches of the control crossing, whereas such increases were not detected at the treatment crossing. Therefore, while the crossing upgrade was effective in preventing cattle-derived point source pollution by between 112 and 158%, diffuse source pollution to water supplies from livestock is not ameliorated by this intervention alone. Our findings indicate that stream crossings that prevent direct contact between livestock and waterways provide a simple method for reducing pollutant loads in source water catchments, which ultimately minimises the likelihood of pathogenic microorganisms passing through source water catchments and the drinking water supply system. The efficacy of the catchment as a primary barrier to pathogenic risks to drinking water supplies would be improved with the integration of management interventions that minimise direct contact between livestock and waterways, combined with the mitigation of diffuse sources of livestock-derived faecal matter from farmland runoff to the aquatic environment.

Modelling food-web mediated effects of hydrological variability and environmental flows

Environmental flows are designed to enhance aquatic ecosystems through a variety of mechanisms; however, to date most attention has been paid to the effects on habitat quality and life-history triggers, especially for fish and vegetation. The effects of environmental flows on food webs have so far received little attention, despite food-web thinking being fundamental to understanding of river ecosystems. Understanding environmental flows in a food-web context can help scientists and policy-makers better understand and manage outcomes of flow alteration and restoration. In this paper, we consider mechanisms by which flow variability can influence and alter food webs, and place these within a conceptual and numerical modelling framework. We also review the strengths and weaknesses of various approaches to modelling the effects of hydrological management on food webs. Although classic bioenergetic models such as Ecopath with Ecosim capture many of the key features required, other approaches, such as biogeochemical ecosystem modelling, end-to-end modelling, population dynamic models, individual-based models, graph theory models, and stock assessment models are also relevant. In many cases, a combination of approaches will be useful. We identify current challenges and new directions in modelling food-web responses to hydrological variability and environmental flow management. These include better integration of food-web and hydraulic models, taking physiologically-based approaches to food quality effects, and better representation of variations in space and time that may create ecosystem control points.

Scaling biodiversity responses to hydrological regimes

Of all ecosystems, freshwaters support the most dynamic and highly concentrated biodiversity on Earth. These attributes of freshwater biodiversity along with increasing demand for water mean that these systems serve as significant models to understand drivers of global biodiversity change. Freshwater biodiversity changes are often attributed to hydrological alteration by water‐resource development and climate change owing to the role of the hydrological regime of rivers, wetlands and floodplains affecting patterns of biodiversity. However, a major gap remains in conceptualising how the hydrological regime determines patterns in biodiversitys multiple spatial components and facets (taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic). We synthesised primary evidence of freshwater biodiversity responses to natural hydrological regimes to determine how distinct ecohydrological mechanisms affect freshwater biodiversity at local, landscape and regional spatial scales. Hydrological connectivity influences local and landscape biodiversity, yet responses vary depending on spatial scale. Biodiversity at local scales is generally positively associated with increasing connectivity whereas landscape‐scale biodiversity is greater with increasing fragmentation among locations. The effects of hydrological disturbance on freshwater biodiversity are variable at separate spatial scales and depend on disturbance frequency and history and organism characteristics. The role of hydrology in determining habitat for freshwater biodiversity also depends on spatial scaling. At local scales, persistence, stability and size of habitat each contribute to patterns of freshwater biodiversity yet the responses are variable across the organism groups that constitute overall freshwater biodiversity. We present a conceptual model to unite the effects of different ecohydrological mechanisms on freshwater biodiversity across spatial scales, and develop four principles for applying a multi‐scaled understanding of freshwater biodiversity responses to hydrological regimes. The protection and restoration of freshwater biodiversity is both a fundamental justification and a central goal of environmental water allocation worldwide. Clearer integration of concepts of spatial scaling in the context of understanding impacts of hydrological regimes on biodiversity will increase uptake of evidence into environmental flow implementation, identify suitable biodiversity targets responsive to hydrological change or restoration, and identify and manage risks of environmental flows contributing to biodiversity decline.

Environmental and Ecological Effects of Flow Alteration in Surface Water Ecosystems

The alteration of river flow regimes by dams, weirs, and water extraction is a key impact of humans on freshwater ecosystems and has occurred in rivers across all inhabited continents worldwide. In this chapter, we provide a brief summary of the expansive literature on the ecological consequences of flow regime change. We focus on links between alteration of specific components of the river flow regime and the typical patterns of ecological response. Flow regime change is evident in terms of altered baseflow(s), reduced flooding magnitude and frequency, reduced floodplain inundation, and altered flow variability; however, the extent to which these hydrological components are altered depends on the driver of hydrological change. Effects of flow regime change are evident for multiple organism groups (i.e., plants, amphibians, invertebrates, and fish), ecological processes and in-channel, riparian, and floodplain environments. Altered richness, abundance and density, composition, and altered process rates are reported as responses to changes across different hydrological components. However, the characteristics of ecological responses vary in response to change across hydrological components and are also strongly determined by local factors such as hydroclimatic region, biological traits of organisms, and how flow regime change is manifest in terms of stream hydraulics. A strong conceptual understanding of the ecological effects of flow regime change is essential for predicting, monitoring, and evaluating the responses of environmental water releases, and how environmental water can be delivered to enhance ecological outcomes.

A framework for evaluating food-web responses to hydrological manipulations in riverine systems

Environmental flows are used to restore elements of the hydrological regime altered by human use of water. One of the primary justifications and purposes for environmental flows is the maintenance of target species populations but, paradoxically, there has been little emphasis on incorporating the food-web and trophic dynamics that determine population-level responses into the monitoring and evaluation of environmental flow programs. We develop a generic framework for incorporating trophic dynamics into monitoring programs to identify the food-web linkages between hydrological regimes and population-level objectives of environmental flows. These linkages form the basis for objective setting, ecological targets and indicator selection that are necessary for planning monitoring programs with a rigorous scientific basis. Because there are multiple facets of trophic dynamics that influence energy production and transfer through food webs, the specific objectives of environmental flows need to be defined during the development of monitoring programs. A multitude of analytical methods exist that each quantify distinct aspects of food webs (e.g. energy production, prey selection, energy assimilation), but no single method can provide a basis for holistic understanding of food webs. Our paper critiques a range of analytical methods for quantifying attributes of food webs to inform the setting, monitoring and evaluation of trophic outcomes of environmental flows and advance the conceptual understanding of trophic dynamics in river-floodplain systems.

Habitat Fragmentation and Metapopulation, Metacommunity, and Metaecosystem Dynamics in Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

Abstract Intermittent rivers and ephemeral streams (IRES) are highly heterogeneous systems, where habitat conditions range from fully aquatic to fully terrestrial. The dynamics of these habitats culminate in variation in connectivity between sites, which has multiple consequences for populations, communities, and ecosystems. IRES can thus be best understood in the context of metasystems, where local dynamics are influenced by regional processes. In this chapter, we synthesize recent work describing how metapopulation, metacommunity, and metaecosystem dynamics are driven by the hydrological variability of IRES. To date, very few studies have considered metapopulation issues in IRES, and the same is largely true for metacommunity and metaecosystem research. IRES are excellent arenas to study metasystems in highly dynamic systems. Research on metasystem issues is important for developing and testing ecological theory and also necessary to manage and conserve biodiversity and ecosystem services in IRES in the face of global change.

Hydrological Connectivity in Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

Abstract In intermittent rivers and ephemeral streams (hereafter, IRES), hydrological connectivity mediated by either flowing or nonflowing water extends along three spatial dimensions—longitudinal, lateral, and vertical—and varies over time. Flow intermittence disrupts this connectivity, operating through complex hydrological transitions (e.g., between flowing and nonflowing phases). These transitions occur concurrently and interact along all three spatial dimensions, primarily driven by flow regime and catchment geomorphology, modified by human activities. Longitudinally, streamflow cessation and drying interrupt hydrological connectivity, contributing to physicochemical patchiness, habitat isolation, and fragmentation of metapopulations and metacommunities. Laterally, hydrological connectivity established during overbank flows is lost when water levels fall, reducing water-mediated transfers of energy, materials, and organisms from the floodplain and riparian zone. Vertically, flow cessation impairs exchange of surface and shallow groundwater, severely altering hydrological, chemical, and microbial gradients within the sediments. Concurrent interactions and physical discontinuities in hydrological connectivity along these three dimensions produce complex mosaics of physicochemical patches at different scales whose boundaries fluctuate over time in response to the flow regime. This complex patchiness underpins the characteristic physical, chemical, and biological diversity at multiple scales along longitudinal, lateral, and vertical hydrological dimensions in IRES.