Robert J. Volpe

Constructing a Roadmap for Future Universal Screening Research Beyond Academics

The majority of the literature on universal screening in education is devoted to academic screeners. However, research clearly indicates that other aspects of student functioning are closely associated with outcomes inside and outside of school. As a result, there are gaps in the current literature that call for additional research extending beyond academics to explore the development and use of other screening tools to better detect students who are at risk for difficulties. Consistent with the purpose of this special series, the aim of this article is to establish a roadmap for future research on universal screening efforts beyond academic domains. The following six themes were integrated into a roadmap that will serve as a guide for future research directed at improving the accuracy, feasibility, effectiveness, and breadth of screening practices in education: (a) universal screening research across multiple domains; (b) determination of the optimal informant; (c) linking screening results to problem-solving efforts; (d) moderators of universal screening outcomes; (e) cost-benefit analyses involving technical adequacy, classification accuracy, and feasibility; and (f) the application of advanced measurement and statistical procedures. These themes represent the foci of the current special issue.

Linking Screening for Emotional and Behavioral Problems to Problem-Solving Efforts: An Adaptive Model of Behavioral Assessment

This paper addresses several objectives of the special issue on universal screening by addressing gaps in the current research base concerning universal screening for mental, emotional, and behavioral health and by providing a framework for addressing the limitations of extant approaches. Specifically, an adaptive model of behavioral assessment (AMBA) is proposed as a conceptual framework for linking screening and progress monitoring and designing tier 2 interventions.

Response-to-intervention (RTI) as a model to facilitate inclusion for students with learning and behaviour problems

Many students with learning and behaviour problems are routinely excluded from regular education. Although calls have been made to educate students with these problems in the same settings as their typically developing peers, it remains unclear how best to support their needs for academic and behavioural support. We address this question first by describing response-to-intervention (RTI), a specific model of prevention and early intervention for learning and behaviour problems. A comprehensive summary of the RTI literature is provided. Second, we will discuss the feasibility and applicability of RTI as one approach to facilitate inclusion of students with learning and behaviour problems. Specifically, we will demonstrate how RTI can be used to address at least four barriers to inclusion by (1) providing a clear implementation strategy for inclusion practices; (2) clearly defining the roles, responsibilities and collaboration of general and special education teachers; (3) enabling the allocation of resources for instruction and intervention; and (4) avoiding early and unnecessary labelling of students with learning and behaviour problems. Third, limitations of RTI as a model to facilitate inclusion will be discussed.

Examining Teachers’ Perceptions of Social-Emotional and Behavioral Referral Concerns

Although a number of empirical studies have investigated the nature of school-based referrals, predominant focus has been on referrals for psychoeducational evaluation, and social-emotional and behavioral concerns have typically been too broadly defined to provide insight into the specific problems encountered. This study aimed to identify the range of social-emotional and behavioral concerns for which teachers sought assistance from school-based intervention teams. Responses received from 154 classroom teachers nationwide indicated that defiance was the most common reason for referral, followed by inappropriate physical behavior, aggression, and social/relational problems. Referrals due to concerns with externalizing problems and attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-related behaviors were significantly more common at the elementary level, whereas those related to internalizing problems were more prevalent in secondary schools. The most common outcome was a request for formal assessment, followed closely by consultation with a specialist. Limitations of this study, as well as implications for educators, are discussed.

An Evaluation of Observational Methods for Measuring Response to Classwide Intervention.

Although there is much research to support the effectiveness of classwide interventions aimed at improving student engagement, there is also a great deal of variability in terms of how response to group-level intervention has been measured. The unfortunate consequence of this procedural variability is that it is difficult to determine whether differences in obtained results across studies are attributable to the way in which behavior was measured or actual intervention effectiveness. The purpose of this study was to comparatively evaluate the most commonly used observational methods for monitoring the effects of classwide interventions in terms of the degree to which obtained data represented actual behavior. The 5 most common sampling methods were identified and evaluated against a criterion generated by averaging across observations conducted on 14 students in one seventh-grade classroom. Results suggested that the best approximation of mean student engagement was obtained by observing a different student during each consecutive 15-s interval whereas observing an entire group of students during each interval underestimated the mean level of behavior within a phase and the degree of behavior change across phases. In contrast, when observations were restricted to the 3 students with the lowest levels of engagement, data revealed greater variability in engagement across baseline sessions and suggested a more notable change in student behavior subsequent to intervention implementation.

The efficiency of behavior rating scales to assess inattentive-overactive and oppositional-defiant behaviors: applying generalizability theory to streamline assessment.

Although the efficiency with which a wide range of behavioral data can be obtained makes behavior rating scales particularly attractive tools for the purposes of screening and evaluation, feasibility concerns arise in the context of formative assessment. Specifically, informant load, or the amount of time informants are asked to contribute to the assessment process, likely has a negative impact on the quality of data over time and the informants willingness to participate. Two important determinants of informant load in progress monitoring are the length of the rating scale (i.e., the number of items) and how frequently informants are asked to provide ratings (i.e., the number of occasions). The purpose of the current study was to investigate the dependability of the IOWA Conners Teacher Rating Scale (Loney & Milich, 1982), which is used to differentiate inattentive-overactive from oppositional-defiant behaviors. Specifically, the facets of items and occasions were examined to identify combinations of these sources of error necessary to reach an acceptable level of dependability for both absolute and relative decisions. Results from D studies elucidated a variety of possible item-occasion combinations reaching the criteria for adequate dependability. Recommendations for research and practice are discussed.

The influence of observation length on the dependability of data.

Although direct observation is one of the most frequently used assessment methods by school psychologists, studies have shown that the number of observations needed to obtain a dependable estimate of student behavior may be impractical. Because direct observation may be used to inform important decisions about students, it is crucial that data be reliable. Preliminary research has suggested that dependability may be improved by extending the length of individual observations. The purpose of the current study was, therefore, to examine how changes in observational duration affect the dependability of student engagement data. Twenty seventh grade students were each observed for 30-min across 2 days during math instruction. Generalizability theory was then used to calculate reliability-like coefficients for the purposes of intraindividual decision making. Across days, acceptable levels of dependability for progress monitoring (i.e., .70) were achieved through two 30-min observations, three 15-min observations, or four to five 10-min observations. Acceptable levels of dependability for higher stakes decisions (i.e., .80) required over an hour of cumulative observation time. Within a given day, a 15 minute observation was found to be adequate for making low-stakes decisions whereas an hour long observation was necessary for high-stakes decision making. Limitations of the current study and implications for research and practice are discussed.

Factor-Analytic and Individualized Approaches to Constructing Brief Measures of ADHD Behaviors

Two studies were performed to examine a factor-analytic and an individualized approach to creating short progress-monitoring measures from the longer ADHD-Symptom Checklist-4 (ADHD-SC4). In Study 1, teacher ratings on items of the ADHD:Inattentive (IA) and ADHD:Hyperactive-Impulsive (HI) scales of the ADHD-SC4 were factor analyzed in a normative data sample of 493 students aged 5 to 12 years. Items with the highest factor loadings were then selected to create abbreviated IA and HI scales for Study 2. In Study 2, the psychometric characteristics of two shortened progress-monitoring measures (factor derived and individualized) and the original IA and HI scales of the ADHD-SC4 were examined in a sample of 26 students aged 4 to 17 years in a medication titration study involving baseline and three doses of methylphenidate. The results indicated comparable psychometric properties across the original and abbreviated versions of the IA and HI scales.

Comparison of the Efficiency of Two Flashcard Drill Methods on Children's Reading Performance

The purpose of this study was to extend prior flashcard drill and practice research by holding instructional time constant and allowing learning trials to vary. Specifically, the authors aimed to determine whether an incremental rehearsal method or a traditional drill and practice method was most efficient in helping 5 first-grade children read, maintain, and generalize words when time allocated for each instructional method was controlled. Findings revealed that all 5 participants learned more words per session with the traditional drill and practice method. However, a higher percentage of words that were taught under the incremental rehearsal condition were generalized when they were presented in the context of sentences. These findings have implications for school psychologists and educators who play a role in deciding what academic interventions will be used to maximize student learning in the classroom.

Integrating Classwide Early Literacy Intervention and Behavioral Supports: A Pilot Investigation

Kindergarten Peer Assisted Learning Strategies and directly teaching and reinforcing behavioral expectations are empirically supported interventions for building early literacy skills and increasing on-task behavior, respectively. Previous research has not investigated the application of both academic and behavior interventions simultaneously to prevent reading failure. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of KPALS with and without a classroom management strategy (CMS) consisting of posting and teaching classroom expectations and reinforcing them via a token economy for 20 kindergarten students from an urban elementary school in the northeastern United States. Results indicated an increase in the level of active engagement and teacher-directed instruction with the implementation of KPALS and CMS. Moreover, a clear improvement in students’ academic skills occurred with the addition of the CMS. Future research and practical implications are discussed.