Robert M. Hodapp

The Use and Effectiveness of Maternal Scaffolding in Mother-Infant Games.

Maternal behaviors within mother-infant games were examined to determine the amount, type, and functional value of maternal helping behaviors. 17 mother-infant pairs were videotaped on monthly visits from 8 to 16 months as they played 5 separate games. 2 of these games, roll the ball and peekaboo, were analyzed in terms of rounds of each game. Results show that dyads play more rounds of both games in the first months that infants perform game-relevant behaviors (e.g., returning a ball, performing uncovering or covering-uncovering). Maternal attention-getting and physical stage-setting behaviors occur in the early rounds of both games. In roll the ball, maternal hands-out and reinforcement behaviors increase in the months after the child begins to return the ball, while the percentage of rounds in which dyads play nonreturn variants decreases. Infants are more likely to return a ball when mother holds out her hands than when she does not. Infants are also able to perform returning or uncovering in game contexts before they perform similar behaviors in cognitive tests. The general similarity of findings in the peekaboo and roll-the-ball games, in spite of differences in the amounts of scaffolding, attention-getting, stage-setting, and reinforcement behaviors between the 2 games, indicates that the types and functions of maternal helping behaviors may be generalizable to other contexts of mother-infant interactions.

Children with Down syndrome: Applying the developmental perspective to individuals with Down syndrome

The application of the developmental perspective to atypical populations is characterized by two historical trends. First, the developmental perspective has itself evolved, expanding from its original focus on cognitive and linguistic development to the recent focus on the whole child (Zigler & Hodapp, in press) and the environment in which that child develops (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Sameroff, 1975). Second, workers have gradually applied the developmental perspective to a wider array of clinical populations (Cicchetti, 1984a). The result is that neither theory nor application has remained static: an expanding theory has increasingly been applied to more varied populations. In this brief historical review, we attempt to chart trends both in developmental theory and in its application to retarded individuals. After describing the shift from “classical” to “expanded” developmental perspectives, we attempt to show the progression in the application of developmental theory, first to retarded persons not demonstrating organic symptomology (the so-called familial or cultural–familial retarded), later to individuals with Down syndrome and other organic etiologies. Throughout these discussions, we emphasize the strengths and weaknesses of the developmental approach to an understanding of Down syndrome and other retarded individuals. Classical and expanded developmental perspectives Classical developmental theory Any list of developmental theorists must begin with Jean Piaget and Heinz Werner. Even though Piaget is currently undergoing a series of criticisms (e.g., Fischer, 1980; Flavell, 1982), while Werner has experienced a rediscovery by the field (e.g., Wapner & Kaplan, 1983; White, 1984), both are undeniably the developmental theorists par excellence . A brief overview of the basic principles of both men is therefore in order, if only to delimit the proper domain of “developmental psychology” when we later discuss its expanded version.

Adaptive and Maladaptive Functioning of Institutionalized and Noninstitutionalized Fragile X Males

The profile of adaptive strengths and weaknesses of 12 institutionalized and 15 noninstitutionalized fragile X males was examined using the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. Fragile X males in both living settings demonstrated relative strengths in Daily Living Skills compared to functioning in the domains of Communication and Socialization. Within daily living skills, personal (e.g., grooming, toileting) and domestic (e.g., cooking, cleaning) skills were better developed than community skills (e.g., managing money, attending work). Both institutionalized and noninstitutionalized fragile X males showed high levels of maladaptive behavior characterized by attentional impairments; impulsivity; and defiant, oppositional externalizing behaviors. High levels of anxiety were also apparent. The institutional sample showed particular deficits in expressive and written communication but was more likely than the noninstitutional group to have individuals with levels of daily living skills above their mental ages. These findings have direct implications for intervention with fragile X males.

Changing patterns of intellectual strengths and weaknesses in males with fragile X syndrome

Examined the changing profiles of intelligence in males with fragile X syndrome as these individuals increased in chronological age. Using a psychometric instrument designed to measure styles of information processing, 21 males aged 4 to 27 years were examined cross-sectionally in sequential processing, simultaneous processing, and achievement. The age of the subject was associated with age-equivalent levels of both simultaneous processing and achievement, but fragile X males did not show higher levels of sequential processing with increasing chronological age. Compared to younger fragile X males, the older subjects were more delayed in sequential processing skills relative to their abilities in other areas. A smaller longitudinal study confirmed the presence of a plateau in sequential processing among those subjects tested two times after the age of 10 years. Implications are discussed for diagnosis, intervention, and the matching of subject groups in mental retardation research.

What mental retardation teaches us about typical development: The examples of sequences, rates, and cross-domain relations

The developmental approach toward mental retardation historically has examined whether retarded individuals behave as do nonretarded individuals. An alternative approach involves using data from handicapped populations as “experiments of nature” to provide information about typical developmental processes. Three examples of this use of mental retardation findings include examinations of sequences, rates, and cross-domain relations. Certain instances of universal sequences appear to have been replicated by findings from children with mental retardation, but in other cases mentally retarded children help illustrate the extremes to which certain individual styles of development can be taken. Changing rates of development in different types of retarded children sometimes appear due to changes in the developmental tasks facing the child, sometimes to changes in neurobiologic factors related to chronological age. Cross-domain findings from children of diverse etiologies suggest the necessity of certain, specific connections among seemingly disparate behaviors in development. The article concludes with a discussion of mental retardation research as an experiment of nature that serves to replicate and amplify existing findings as well as to spur new extensions of developmental theory.

Current developments in the understanding of mental retardation part I: Biological and phenomenological perspectives

During the past decade, noteworthy advances have taken place within the field of mental retardation. The application of advanced biological techniques in such areas as molecular genetics and neuroimaging has substantially improved our ability to identify the biological factors that underlie the origin and pathogenesis of an increasing number of mental retardation syndromes. Refined genetic and psychosocial assessments have highlighted the impressive degree of heterogeneity that is present within and across many mental retardation syndromes, stimulating increasing interest and study. This, the first of a two-part review, will focus on recent developments in biological and phenomenological aspects of mental retardation.

Maternal Emotional Reactions to Young Children with Different Types of Handicaps

Emotional reactions were examined cross-sectionally over the 1-to 6-year period in mothers of children with Down syndrome (N = 25) and with predominantly motor impairments (N = 20). Mothers rated their degree of concern about 16 early milestones and four events, and were also interviewed with the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. Although milestones occurring during the first year caused higher levels of maternal concern than did later-occurring ones, concern was also evident for some later milestones. Mothers of Down syndrome and of motor-impaired children were equally concerned about motor milestones, but mothers in the Down syndrome group were more concerned about developments in communication. The two groups modulated their maternal concern based on different aspects of the childs communication skills. The timing, specificity, and sensitivity of maternal reactions identified in this study are discussed in relation to the unidirectional, time-bound model of “maternal mourning.” J Dev Behav Pediatr 13:118–123, 1992.

Self- and other regulation during the infancy period☆

Abstract The “other regulation” views of Lev Vygotsky and of Jerome Bruner are contrasted with Jean Piagets self-regulatory model of infant development. Examples of adult behavior in Piagets writings and in mother-infant interactions suggest that adults perform behaviors which are analogous to Piagets type a and b self-regulation. Data from infant games are provided to illustrate the processes by which mothers regulate the environments for their infants and the consequences of such maternal regulation for infant development.

The use of mother-infant games as therapy with delayed children

The use of mother-infant games as therapy may be useful in early intervention work with delayed children. Within the game context mother first gets the child seated facing the mother (stage-setting), then gets the childs attention (attention-getting). Once this has been achieved, mothers begin playing the particular game, providing the appropriate context (e.g., holding out hands for ball in roll the ball game; leaning forward and vocalizing while hidden in peek-a-boo) to aid infants in the performance of game-relevant behaviors. These strategies, employed in precise patterns in roll the ball game and peek-a-boo with normal infants, can also be applied to work with delayed children. We present a case study of game interactions between a severely delayed two-year-old boy and his mother, employing the techniques of normal infant-mother game interactions to aid development.

Las funciones del juego social madre-niño

ResumenEste articulo proporciona una vision de conjunto de las funciones cognitivas y emocionales que los juegos madre-bebe aportan tanto al nino como a la madre. Implicando al nino en interacciones que comportan repeticion, turnos, atencion conjunta y ausencia de literalidad, los juegos pueden ayudar a los bebes en su desarrollo de destrezas linguisticas y sensoriomotoras. A traves de los intercambios ludicos las madres facilitan y provocan en sus hijos conductas de un nivel elevado que los bebes serian incapaces de producir por si mismos. Los juegos cumplen tambien diversas funciones emocionales: ayudan a los ninos a hacer frente a la «perdida» de la madre y a desarrollar los conceptos de yo, dominio y humor. En lo que concierne a las madres, los juegos aportan un contexto suplementario en el que se estimula la vinculacion madre-hijo.