Robert P. Naftel

Laparoscopic versus open insertion of the peritoneal catheter in ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement: review of 810 consecutive cases

OBJECT Traditional ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunt surgery involves insertion of the distal catheter by minilaparotomy. However, minilaparotomy may be a significant source of morbidity during shunt surgery. Laparoscopic insertion of the distal catheter is an alternative technique that may simplify and improve the safety of shunt surgery. METHODS The authors performed a retrospective review of hospital records of all patients undergoing new VP shunt insertion at a tertiary care center between 2004 and 2009. Patient characteristics and outcomes were compared between patients undergoing open or laparoscopic insertion of the distal catheter. Independent variables in the analysis included age, sex, race, body mass index, surgical technique, previous VP shunt placement, previous abdominal procedures, American Society of Anesthesiology (ASA) score, and indication for shunt placement. Dependent variables included the occurrence of shunt failure, cause of shunt failure, complications, length of stay (LOS), LOS after shunt placement, estimated blood loss, and operative time. RESULTS The authors identified 810 patients who met the inclusion criteria; open or laparoscopic distal catheter insertion was performed in 335 and 475 patients, respectively. There were no significant differences between the groups regarding age, race, ASA score, or indication for shunt placement. The most common indication was hydrocephalus due to subarachnoid hemorrhage, followed by tumor-associated hydrocephalus, normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH), and hydrocephalus due to trauma. The incidence of shunt failure was not statistically different between cohorts, occurring in 20.0% of laparoscopic and 20.9% of open catheter placement cases (p = 0.791). With analysis of causes of shunt failure, shunt obstruction occurred significantly more often in the open surgery cohort (p = 0.012). In patients with a known cause shunt obstruction, distal obstruction occurred in 35.7% of the open cohort obstructions and 4.8% of the laparoscopic cohort obstructions (p = 0.014). The relative risk of distal obstruction in open cases compared with laparoscopic cases was 7.50. Infections occurred in 8.2% of laparoscopic cases compared with 6.6% of open cases (p = 0.419). Within the NPH subgroup, the laparoscopically treated patients had significantly more overdrainage (p = 0.040), whereas those in the open cohort experienced significantly more shunt obstructions (p = 0.034). Laparoscopically treated patients had shorter operative times (p < 0.0005), inpatient LOS (p < 0.001), and inpatient LOS after VP shunt placement (p = 0.01) as well as less blood loss (p = 0.058). CONCLUSIONS To our knowledge this is the largest reported comparison of distal VP shunt catheter insertion techniques. Compared with minilaparotomy, the laparoscopic approach was associated with decreased time in the operating room and a decreased LOS. Moreover, laparoscopy was associated with fewer distal shunt obstructions. Laparoscopic shunt surgery is a viable alternative to traditional shunt surgery.

Technology preferences among caregivers of children with hydrocephalus.

OBJECT The Internet and social media are powerful disseminators of medical information, providing new portals for patient care. The authors of this study evaluated current technology hardware, Internet, and social media use and their socioeconomic relationships among caregivers of children with hydrocephalus. METHODS A written survey was completed in the neurosurgical clinics at the University of Alabama at Birmingham by 300 parents of children with shunted hydrocephalus between October 26, 2010, and July 26, 2011. RESULTS Computer use (94.6%), Internet use (91.7%), smartphone use (56.9%), and Internet research on hydrocephalus (81.9%) were prevalent. However, for each of these four utilizations there was significantly lower access by caregivers of minority races (p = 0.04, 0.03, 0.002, and < 0.0001, respectively), lower income (p = 0.02, 0.01, < 0.0001, and < 0.0001, respectively), and lower level of education (p = 0.001, 0.002, < 0.0001, and 0.001, respectively). Personal use of social media was prevalent (95.1% of all Internet users) with use being more prevalent among less-educated than higher-educated caregivers (p = 0.017). Hydrocephalus-related social media use (59.5% of Internet users) was not associated with socioeconomic factors. For hydrocephalus education on the Internet, caregivers chose information websites such as Wikipedia or the Hydrocephalus Association as preferred platforms; these preferences were followed by use of social media websites. Facebook and YouTube were the preferred social media platforms for personal and hydrocephalus-related use. Parents indicate moderate skepticism about the trustworthiness of the Internet; only 21.7% always trust the online sources. Most parents (89.8%) say that they would visit neurosurgeon-recommended websites. Of Internet-using caregivers, 28.6% use the Internet or social media to find hydrocephalus support groups, and 34.8% have used the Internet to communicate with other caregivers who have children with similar conditions. CONCLUSIONS Technology hardware, the Internet, and social media are widely used with some skepticism by parents of children with shunted hydrocephalus. Caregivers are interested in physician-recommended Internet resources. Socioeconomic factors including race, income, and level of education reveal a disparity in access to some of these resources, although all groups have relatively high use. Unlike typical technology use, social media use is breaking down the digital divide among ethnic and socioeconomic groups.

Small-ventricle neuroendoscopy for pediatric brain tumor management

OBJECT The use of intraventricular endoscopy to achieve diagnosis or to resect accessible intraventricular or paraventricular tumors has been described in the literature in both adults and children. Traditionally, these techniques have not been used in patients with small ventricles due to the perceived risk of greater morbidity. The authors review their experience with the effectiveness and safety of endoscopic brain tumor management in children with small ventricles. METHODS Between July 2002 and December 2009, 24 children with endoscopically managed brain tumors were identified. Radiological images were reviewed by a radiologist blinded to study goals and clinical setting. Patients were categorized into small-ventricle and ventriculomegaly groups based on frontal and occipital horn ratio. Surgical success was defined a priori and analyzed between groups. Trends were identified in selected subgroups, including complications related to pathological diagnosis and surgeon experience. RESULTS Six children had small ventricles and 18 had ventriculomegaly. The ability to accomplish surgical goals was statistically equivalent in children with small ventricles and those with ventriculomegaly (83% vs 89%, respectively, p = 1.00). There were no complications in the small-ventricle cohort, but in the ventriculomegaly cohort there were 2 cases of postoperative hemorrhages and 1 case of infection. All hemorrhagic complications occurred in patients with high-grade tumor histopathological type and were early in the surgeons endoscopic career. CONCLUSIONS Based on our experience, endoscopy should not be withheld in children with intraventricular tumors and small ventricles. Complications appear to be more dependent on tumor histopathological type and surgeon experience than ventricular size.

Validation and modification of a predictive model of postresection hydrocephalus in pediatric patients with posterior fossa tumors

OBJECT Postresection hydrocephalus is observed in approximately 30% of pediatric patients with posterior fossa tumors. However, which patients will develop postresection hydrocephalus is not known. The Canadian Preoperative Prediction Rule for Hydrocephalus (CPPRH) was developed in an attempt to identify this subset of patients, allowing for the optimization of their care. The authors sought to validate and critically appraise the CPPRH. METHODS The authors conducted a retrospective chart review of 99 consecutive pediatric patients who presented between 2002 and 2010 with posterior fossa tumors and who subsequently underwent resection. The data were then analyzed using bivariate and multivariate analyses, and a modified CPPRH (mCPPRH) was applied. RESULTS Seventy-six patients were evaluated. Four variables were found to be significant in predicting postresection hydrocephalus: age younger than 2 years, moderate/severe hydrocephalus, preoperative tumor diagnosis, and transependymal edema. The mCPPRH produced observed likelihood ratios of 0.737 (95% CI 0.526-1.032) and 4.688 (95% CI 1.421-15.463) for low- and high-risk groups, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The mCPPRH utilizes readily obtainable and reliable preoperative variables that together stratify children with posterior fossa tumors into high- and low-risk categories for the development of postresection hydrocephalus. This new predictive model will aid patient counseling and tailor the intensity of postoperative clinical and radiographic monitoring for hydrocephalus, as well as provide evidence-based guidance for the use of prophylactic CSF diversion.

Motor vehicle restraint system use and risk of spine injury.

Objective. Motor vehicle collision (MVC)-related spinal injury is a severe and often permanently disabling injury. In addition, strain injuries have been reported as a common outcome of MVCs. Although advances in automobile crashworthiness have reduced both fatalities and severe injuries, the impact of varying occupant restraint systems (seatbelts and airbags) on thoracolumbar spine injuries is unknown. This study examined the relationship between the occurrence of mild to severe cervical and thoracolumbar spine injury and occupant restraint systems among front seat occupants involved in frontal MVCs. Methods. A retrospective cohort study was conducted among subjects obtained from the 1995–2004 National Automotive Sampling System. Cases were identified based on having sustained a spine injury of ≥1 on the Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS), 1990 Revision. Risk risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were computed comparing occupant restraint systems with unrestrained occupants. Results. We found an overall incidence of AIS1 cervical (11.8%) and thoracolumbar (3.7%) spinal injury. Seatbelt only restraints were associated with increased cervical AIS1 injury (RR = 1.40, 95% CI 1.04–1.88). However, seatbelt only restraints showed the greatest risk reduction for AIS2 spinal injuries. Airbag only restraints reduced thoracolumbar AIS1 injuries (RR = 0.29, 95% CI 0.08–1.04). Seatbelt combined with airbag use was protective for cervical AIS3+ injury overall (RR = 0.29, 95% CI 0.14–0.58), cervical neurological injury (RR = 0.19, 95% CI 0.05–0.81), and thoracolumbar AIS3+ injury overall (RR = 0.20, 95% CI 0.05–0.70). Conclusions. The results of this study suggest that seatbelts alone or in combination with an airbag increased the incidence of AIS1 spinal injuries, but provide protection against more severe injury to all regions of the spine. Airbag deployment without seatbelt use did not show increased protection relative to unrestrained occupants.

The lateral extracavitary approach to the thoracolumbar spine: a case series and systematic review

OBJECT Since its introduction in 1976, the lateral extracavitary approach (LECA) has been used to access ventral and ventrolateral pathology affecting the thoracolumbar spine. Reporting of outcomes and complications has been inconsistent. A case series and systematic review are presented to summarize the available data. METHODS A retrospective review of medical records was performed, which identified 65 consecutive patients who underwent LECA for the treatment of thoracolumbar spine and spinal cord pathology. Cases were divided according to the presenting pathology. Neurological outcomes and complications were detailed. In addition, a systematic review of outcomes and complications in patients treated with the LECA as reported in the literature was completed. RESULTS Sixty-five patients underwent the LECA to the spine for the treatment of thoracic spine and spinal cord pathology. The most common indication for surgery was thoracic disc herniation (23/65, 35.4%). Neurological outcomes were excellent: 69.2% improved, 29.2% experienced no change, and 1.5% were worse. Two patients (3.1%) experienced a complication. The systematic review revealed comparable neurological outcomes (74.9% improved) but a notably higher complication rate (32.2%). CONCLUSIONS The LECA provides dorsal and unilateral ventrolateral access to and exposure of the thoracolumbar spine and spinal cord while allowing for posterior instrumentation through the same incision. Although excellent neurological results can be expected, the risk of pulmonary complications should be considered.

Pseudoprogression of low‐grade gliomas after radiotherapy

Increasing mass effect following radiation therapy (RT) in patients with low‐grade gliomas (LGGs) can be mistaken for tumor progression and/or malignant degeneration. Distinguishing pseudoprogression (PP) from true progression is crucial, with vastly different treatment approaches and prognoses.

Parental recognition of shunt failure: a prospective single­institution study

OBJECT Because there is no gold standard for preoperative diagnosis of shunt failure, understanding the sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of symptoms, signs, and diagnostic tests enables practitioners to make logical clinical decisions. Parents of children with shunts undergo educational instruction to enable them to recognize shunt failure. The authors prospectively investigated parental ability to recognize shunt failure. METHODS Data were prospectively collected on 205 consecutive encounters in 153 children with shunted hydrocephalus presenting to the emergency department or clinic, or as an inpatient consultation, to the Childrens Hospital of Alabama between April and October 2010. Regardless of the complaint, all parents were asked if they believed the shunt was in failure. Six children were excluded from analysis because a parental response was lacking. Using the Shunt Design Trial definitions, shunt failure was diagnosed intraoperatively or ruled out if the child did not undergo shunt revision within 1 week of presentation. Sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, and accuracy were calculated using the parental response and shunt failure diagnosis. Secondarily, parents were compared based on their experience with shunt failure in their children; experienced parents were defined as having experienced at least 3 shunt failures. Post hoc analysis evaluated diagnostic test characteristics among hydrocephalus causes and compared parental recognition of shunt failure to head CT and shunt series diagnostic test characteristics. Parents also completed a standardized shunt failure survey regarding their shunt teaching education and symptom tracking. RESULTS Children enrolled were a mean age of 6.9 years old, 92 (46%) of the encounters were with male patients, and most patients were Caucasian (69%) and had undergone an average of 2.8 previous shunt revisions. Seventy-one children (36%) were diagnosed with shunt failure. Parental response diagnostic test characteristics were: positive predictive value (PPV) of 41%, negative predictive value (NPV) of 79%, sensitivity of 83%, specificity of 34%, and accuracy of 52% for shunt failure. Sixty-three parents were considered experienced and responded with a PPV of 29%, NPV of 92%, sensitivity of 94%, specificity of 23%, and accuracy of 41%. One hundred thirty-six parents were considered inexperienced and responded with a PPV of 48%, NPV of 75%, sensitivity of 80%, specificity of 41%, and accuracy of 57%. When statistically compared, experienced parents had significantly lower PPV (29% vs 48%, respectively; p = 0.035) and accuracy (41% vs 57%, respectively; p = 0.049) than inexperienced parents. On post hoc analysis, parental recognition of shunt failure was inferior to head CT and shunt series diagnostic tests with a lower specificity (20% vs 88%, respectively; p < 0.0005), PPV (44% vs 84%, respectively; p < 0.0005), NPV (61% vs 85%, respectively; p = 0.006), and accuracy (47% vs. 85%, respectively; p < 0.0005). CONCLUSIONS The overall parental response had the greatest value in ruling out shunt failure, reflected in the high NPV, particularly in experienced parents. The head CT and shunt series provide more favorable diagnostic test characteristics than the parental response. Although educational interventions have decreased shunt-related deaths, parents have difficulty differentiating shunt failure from alternative diagnoses.

Scoliosis in myelomeningocele: epidemiology, management, and functional outcome

OBJECTIVE The authors aimed to provide an updated and consolidated report on the epidemiology, management, and functional outcome of cases of myelomeningocele (MMC) in patients with scoliosis. METHODS A comprehensive literature search was performed using MEDLINE, Embase, Google Scholar, and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews on cases of MMC in patients with scoliosis between 1980 and 2016. The initial search yielded 670 reports. After removing duplicates and applying inclusion criteria, we included 32 full-text original articles in this study. RESULTS Pooled statistical analysis of the included articles revealed the prevalence of scoliosis in MMC patients to be 53% (95% CI 0.42-0.64). Slightly more females (56%) are affected with both MMC and scoliosis than males. Motor level appears to be a significant predictor of prevalence, but not severity, of scoliosis in MMC patients. Treatment options for these patients include tethered cord release (TCR) and fusion surgeries. Curvature improvement and stabilization after TCR may be limited to patients with milder (< 50°) curves. Meanwhile, more aggressive fusion procedures such as a combined anterior-posterior approach may result in more favorable long-term scoliosis correction, albeit with greater complication rates. Quality of life metrics including ambulatory status and sitting stability are influenced by motor level of the lesion as well as the degree of the scoliosis curvature. CONCLUSIONS Scoliosis is among the most common and challenging comorbidities from which patients with MMC suffer. Although important epidemiological and management trends are evident, larger, prospective studies are needed to discover ways to more accurately counsel and more optimally treat these patients.

Ventricular catheter entry site and not catheter tip location predicts shunt survival: a secondary analysis of 3 large pediatric hydrocephalus studies

OBJECTIVE Accurate placement of ventricular catheters may result in prolonged shunt survival, but the best target for the hole-bearing segment of the catheter has not been rigorously defined. The goal of the study was to define a target within the ventricle with the lowest risk of shunt failure. METHODS Five catheter placement variables (ventricular catheter tip location, ventricular catheter tip environment, relationship to choroid plexus, catheter tip holes within ventricle, and crosses midline) were defined, assessed for interobserver agreement, and evaluated for their effect on shunt survival in univariate and multivariate analyses. De-identified subjects from the Shunt Design Trial, the Endoscopic Shunt Insertion Trial, and a Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network study on ultrasound-guided catheter placement were combined (n = 858 subjects, all first-time shunt insertions, all patients < 18 years old). The first postoperative brain imaging study was used to determine ventricular catheter placement for each of the catheter placement variables. RESULTS Ventricular catheter tip location, environment, catheter tip holes within the ventricle, and crosses midline all achieved sufficient interobserver agreement (κ > 0.60). In the univariate survival analysis, however, only ventricular catheter tip location was useful in distinguishing a target within the ventricle with a survival advantage (frontal horn; log-rank, p = 0.0015). None of the other catheter placement variables yielded a significant survival advantage unless they were compared with catheter tips completely not in the ventricle. Cox regression analysis was performed, examining ventricular catheter tip location with age, etiology, surgeon, decade of surgery, and catheter entry site (anterior vs posterior). Only age (p < 0.001) and entry site (p = 0.005) were associated with shunt survival; ventricular catheter tip location was not (p = 0.37). Anterior entry site lowered the risk of shunt failure compared with posterior entry site by approximately one-third (HR 0.65, 95% CI 0.51-0.83). CONCLUSIONS This analysis failed to identify an ideal target within the ventricle for the ventricular catheter tip. Unexpectedly, the choice of an anterior versus posterior catheter entry site was more important in determining shunt survival than the location of the ventricular catheter tip within the ventricle. Entry site may represent a modifiable risk factor for shunt failure, but, due to inherent limitations in study design and previous clinical research on entry site, a randomized controlled trial is necessary before treatment recommendations can be made.