Robert R. Blake

The Fifth Achievement

Recognizing mans four achievements in dealing with differences among men, i.e., science, politics, hierarchy, and law, the authors foresee a fifth achievement by which men will ultimately be able to work out their differences. It will be the establishment of a problemsolving society in which its members can resolve differences through their own insight. Here presented is the Conflict Grid for use in evaluating good or bad ways for ending disputes as a vehicle for creative problem solving in the future and a basis for such a problem-solving society.

A comparative analysis of situationalism and 9,9 management by principle

Abstract Two fundamentally different approaches to theory, research, and to the practice of leadership point in opposite and mutually contradictory directions. Because both cannot be valid, a controversy has arisen as to whether leadership should be conceived of as being contingent upon the situation or whether there is one most effective style for all situations. In the first case, the leader changes behavior to fit the situation. In the second, the leader changes the situation to bring it into line with sound principles of behavior as these are emerging in the behavioral sciences. This article has examined the roots this controversy and the widely unexamined assumptions embedded within the conceptual structure supporting each side of its. Eight interrelated kinds of evidence have been presented that lead to the conclusion that one best style is a sounder basis for the exercise of effective leadership-to wit: 1. 1. Boss-subordinate dialogues demonstrating that it is unnecessary to shift style with maturiry level; 9,9-oriented leadership is possible with subordinates at all maturity levels. 2. 2. When instruments for measuring situational leadership are examined, it is found that the “one most effective style” alternative is not provided as one of the available options for dealing with the situation. Therefore, when measuring instruments exclude the one most effective style from comparative analysis, it obviously cannot be selected as the best alternative. 3. 3. Research is reported showing that when the 9,9-oriented alternative is added to a typical situational instrument, it is judged by experienced managers to be a significantly more effective basis for dealing with a variety of situations than is the situational leadership model prescription. 4. 4. Explanations for the absence of the “one most effective style” alternative are offered based on examining the situational theories from which the measurement practices are derived. This leads to the conclusion that the explanation lies in the manner in which task and relationship variables are combined. Following Fleishman and Reddin, the Hersey and Blanchard situational model is predicated on an additive (+) basis of combining independent variables that produces a mixture. This basis of separating two variables of each other loses the concept of leadership and creates several of the unfortunate consequences of reductionism. When high magnitudes of both variables are present, the result is 9+9 (high-high) or paternalism/maternalism. By comparison, “one best style” models are based on interaction between two interdependent but uncorelated variables that results in a shift in the character of leadership. This is designated by a (,) basis of compounding that identifies and defines the 9,9 leadership orientation. The important distinction is at the level of concept formation rather than at the level of statistical treatment, where the same terms are used. If the basic concept formation is in-appropriate, no amount of sophisticated statistical analysis can rectify the difficulties inherent in the theory itself. 5. 5. Published research was examined to determined whether the measuring instruments used are based upon concept formation of the (+) or the (,) character. Research premised on the (+) concept formation and test construction has consistently deomstrated that there is no one best leadership style. By comparison, when leadership is measured by instruments where concept formation and test construction are consistent with the compounding concept (,), the conclusions have consistently demonstrated (a) one style is most effective, and (b) this style is described by the 9,9 orientation or others essentially equivalent with it-that is, System, 4, Theory Y, Model II. 6. 6. The Hersey and Blanchard situational leadership model and the Blake and Mouton Grid model were then compared to determine the manner in which each deals with behavioral science concepts of leadership. By comparison with the 9,9 Grid orientation, the situational leadership model limits participation and conceives of it as a technique, fails to deal with conflict resolution as the basis of achieving understanding and agreement, and disregards critique and feedback as basic to learning, development, and change. The one behavioral science concept relied upon by Hersey and Blanchard is Skinnerian reinforcement theory; that is, the boss rewards subordinates for compliance with socioemotional support. By comparison, reward in the “one most effective style” approach is intrinsic to open participation that promotes invovement and commitment. 7. 7. Principles of behavior emerging from the behavioral sciences are interpreted as providing the strategy for conceiving the exercise of leadership based on open participation, candor, the promotion of trust and respect, stimulation of involvement and commitment, goal setting, confrontational conflict solving, and learning through critique solving, and learning through critique and feedback. These strategies do not change with situational variables, but the tactics of how they are applied shift with the maturity level of subordinates and other moderating variables. 8. 8. Rationalizations that permit both theories to be simultaneously embraced were identified and discussed as examples of how incorrect thinking may be relied on to reduce cognitive dissonance. These findings provide for the resolution of this controversy. They consistently demonstrate that the 9,9 oritentation (System 4, Model II, Theory Y) is the most effective style at the level of conceptual strategy, with tactics of practice geared to situations. This clarification makes it possible to strengthen leadership in its many applications within industry and government, mental health settings, and the academic world by bringing leadership practices into alignment with sound leadership theory.

Some Effects of Managerial Grid Seminar Training on Union and Management Attitudes Toward Supervision

A total of 33 managers and 23 union members from the same plant participated in two one-week Managerial Grid Seminars. A forced-choice questionnaire, administered before the training and upon its completion, was used to assess beliefs about supervisory practices. Results showed significant differences in beliefs as to what constitutes sound supervision both before and after training. Significant changes in attitudes by both groups occurred as a result of the Seminar training.

Grid® Principles Versus Situationalism: A Final Note

are separated and then placed back together again in a plus way. Thus, it is possible to tell a subordinate what to do, when to do it, how to do it, and so forth, and upon compliance give him socioemotional rewards. The subordinate does no thinking, only execution, and in return for compliance, gains acceptance. The high + high combination is paternalism in its clearest form. By comparison, the Grid way of concept formation sees leadership

When Scholarship Fails, Research Falters: A Reply to Bernardin and Alvares

Much is known in the literature on the Managerial Grid? of the issue of self-deception in self-examination scores. After years of study, Corporate Excellence Through Grid Organization Development (Blake and Mouton, 1968) was published showing that approximately 75 percent of American managers score themselves 9,9 in the self-assessment instrument used by Bernardin and Alvares when this instrument is completed prior to a Grid Seminar. This same book reported that the same subjects are asked to recomplete the self-assessment instrument after the one-week Grid Seminar. The amount of 9,9 is reduced in the self-assessments to approximately 43 percent. Thus, the instrument itself aids the subject to understand one of the barriers to change, that is, accurate selfassessment (Blake and Mouton, 1964: 249).

A Model for Identifying and Developing Commitment to Superordinate Goals

The concept of superordinate goals, that is, goals that have an overarching pull on two or more groups that must cooperate for their attainment, stands as one of the many of Sherif’s enduring contributions to theoretical as well as applied social psychology for solving conflicts between groups.

The Productivity Battle: A Behavioral Science Analysis of apan and the United States

A nations behavior is a product of its unique history, form of government, religion, natural resources, and so on. A nations behavior is also shaped by its relationships with other nations-particularly win-lose relationships derived from warfare. This paper examines the shift in productivity trends that have occurred since World War II in Japan and in the United States. The authors apply theories of intergroup conflict under competitive conditions to a comparative analysis of Japans response to defeat and Americas response to victory. They also discuss implications for the future in terms of the win-lose paradigm and its pervasive effects on individual and national attitudes and behaviors.

The influence of competitively vested interests on judgments

As a background for understanding the hypothesis tested, it may be helpful first to describe the broad outlines of the interactions situation in which the experiment took place. Consider a situation in which members of a group actively participated in creating a group product. Members of other groups have engaged in a similar sequence of activities also resulting in a group product. The question to be answered is, &dquo;Which of the two group products is the better or more adequate?&dquo; Each group member is detached physically from his own group situation and interacts with a member of another group as a judging pair to resolve the question. Under condi-

The Dynamics of Influence and Coercion

HE exertion of influence and coercion is fundamental in social conduct. T Parents seek to influence the development of their children; a subordinate to change his boss’s mind; a salesman to complete a sale; policemen and preachers to effect a reduction in misdoing; and therapists to facilitate changes in behaviour leading to increased mental health. Influence, therefore, is an important social process the investigation of which is of great significance in the appreciation of the psychological aspects of social conduct. Through the use of experimental procedures the problem is to employ systematic concepts in investigating the dynamic processes on which the exertion of influence depends. An experimental approach to influence exertion can be formulated in

Motivating Human Productivity in the People's Republic of China

The authors were part of a group touring the Peoples Republic of China in the fall of 1978, before the startling news that China and the United States had established diplomatic relations. This provided an opportu nity for them to participate in a number of industrial and business projects and to learn how Chinese management seeks to motivate pro ductivity. Business contacts were made in four major cities, and a number of discussions were held with third-country nationals engaged in busi ness in China on a day-by-day basis. Different facets of the motivation effort were examined: the ideology of hard work, the manner of evaluat ing it, techniques of exerting pressure to increase it, and the approaches used to reward the greater productivity of one person over another. A number of factors are similar to motivational practices in the United States and Western Europe, and some are strikingly different from what would be regarded as acceptable in the Western World.