Robert R. Zimmermann

PERFORMANCE OF INSTITUTIONAL RETARDATES ON STANDARD AND NEW FORMS OF THE QUICK TEST

121 institutionalized mentally retarded patients were tested on Forms 1–3 and 4–6 of the Quick Test; IQs were correlated with other IQs available from institution records. The forms of the Quick Test correlated significantly with the more traditional and time-consuming tests of intellectual performance. It was concluded that the Quick Test is an excellent tool for experimenters and educators who need an efficient and reliable estimate of intellectual development.

Behavioral Deficiencies in Protein-Deprived Monkeys

It is a well documented fact that large numbers of people in the world, predominantly children in underdeveloped countries, suffer from protein-calorie malnutrition (Behar, L968; Coursin, 1965). Some of the major investigations conducted with human beings suggest that malnutrition experienced early in life may produce a permanent alteration of the phenotypic expression of the normal intellectual and social development of the child (Cravioto and Robles, 1963, 1965; Stoch and Smythe, 1963). Studies concerning severe protein-calorie malnutrition reveal profound behavioral deficiencies in children who suffer such a nutritional deficit before they are six months of age (Brockman and Ricciuti, 1971; Pollitt, 1972). Cravioto and Robles (1965) have reported deficiencies in adaptive behavior, interpersonal social abilities, language acquisition, and motor skills. It is apparent, then, that children with a history of protein-calorie malnutrition exhibit deficits in a variety of developmental tasks when compared to adequately nourished children.

Changes in the social behavior of rhesus monkeys during rehabilitation from prolonged protein-calorie malnutrition.

Social behavior of rhesus macaques placed on repletion diets after periods of up to 3 yr of chronic protein malnutrition was measured in a playroom situation. Observations of experimental and control groups were made 5 days a week for 5 wk prior to and beginning again 30 days after the initiation of repletion. The behaviors observed prior to nutritional rehabilitation were similar to that reported in previous experiments. Nutritionally deprived animals showed higher rates of aggression, less play behavior, less tactual contact, and a greater amount of nonsocial behavior. The animals undergoing nutritional rehabilitation showed significant increases in frequency and duration of approach-play, significant reductions in nonsocial behaviors, and rates of aggression. Although the behavior patterns still did not reach control levels, the changes in the previously malnourished monkeys apparently made these animals more adaptive in the social situations. It was suggested that there were two phases or aspects of recovery. First, behavior patterns which appear after social contact is made recover as a result of nutritional repletion and second, behavior patterns that are necessary for the frequent initiation of social contact may require longer periods of positive social experience.

Recovery from malnutrition: food preference and neophobia.

6 protein-malnourished rhesus monkeys were nutritionally rehabilitated by placing them on diets high in protein content. At 60 and 180 days following the initiation of the rehabilitation program, experimental animals and 4 high-protein dietary controls were tested on a preference task designed to determine reactions to foods containing differing quantities of protein and to novel stimuli. Each S was presented a choice of diets containing 2%, 3.5%, or 25% protein, as well as non-food objects. The results indicated that the aversion to novel stimuli (neophobia) and the preference for high-protein food previously reported in protein-malnourished monkeys did not persist following 180 days of rehabilitation. The results suggest that at least part of the behavioral syndrome associated with protein-calorie malnutrition may be improved by 6 mo. of nutritional rehabilitation.

Apparent size contrasts of retinal images and size constancy as determinants of the moon illusion.

Kaufman and Rock (1962) and Rock and Kaufman (1962) concluded that the moon illusion is a function of and attributable to apparent distance. They also reported a large framing effect as an exception. Analysis of the effect suggests two components which can account for the illusion independently of apparent distance. These are apparent size contrasts of visual images of discriminable features or objects of the earth with the moons image and size constancy of the features or objects plus the interactions of the two. Apparent distances to horizons are always a consequence of the necessary conditions for the illusion. They are related to the illusion but are not a determinant of it.

TRANSPOSITION IN YOUNG MONKEYS AND CHILDREN

30 young monkeys with discrimination learning experience and 30 first grade children were trained to discriminate stimulus pairs which differed in either brightness, volume, or volume plus brightness. After achieving the criteria of learning, Ss were tested for transposition on a fixed number of trials with stimulus pairs along the same dimension. The order of the near and far tests of transposition was counterbalanced. Both monkeys and children made the fewest errors in learning and transferring on the compound stimulus dimension. The most errors were made in learning and transfer on the brightness stimuli and on the far test condition. The analysis yielded no other significant sources of variance for children. However, the order of transposition testing, and the interactions of order × near-far test condition, stimulus dimension × near-far condition, and order × near-far × stimulus were significant sources of variance for the monkeys. Monkeys tested on the far test first made fewer errors on subsequent tests, and the magnitude of the reductions was most dramatic in the brightness condition. The results were interpreted in terms of stimulus differentiation in perceptual learning which assumes that relative differences among stimuli are valid sources of information.

TRANSFER OF A LEARNED RELATIONAL RESPONSE IN MONKEYS AND CHILDREN

Two experiments are reported, the first with 30 young test-wise rhesus monkeys and the second with 30 first grade children, on transfer of relational responding on a series of discrimination learning and transposition problems which varied in degree of stimulus similarity across problems. In the first, monkeys showed superior transfer and transposition when problems contained common stimulus elements and when the stimuli were highly discriminable. Transfer across problems which did not contain common stimulus elements in the first two problems resulted in the most errors and did not yield significant proportions of transposers. In the second, the children also showed enhanced transfer and transposition to the highly discriminable dimensions but there were significant reductions in errors and significant proportions of transposers to all stimulus combinations on the second problem. Ninety percent of the children did not make any errors in either phase of the third and fourth problems. The results were interpreted in terms of the acquisition of abstract or nonspecific perceptual learning sets.

Developmental Study of Transposition in Young Children.

Six groups of nursery schoolers, kindergarteners, and first graders balanced for sex were trained and tested on a series of discrimination learning and transposition problems. Problems differed on some aspect of size, i.e., area, height, volume. Each child was trained to a criterion of learning and tested for transposition on a far- then near-test sequence for a fixed number of trials. Analyses of discrimination learning errors showed (a) an over-all decrease in errors with increasing age and increasing stimulus discriminability and (b) a decrease in mean error rates across problems. Analyses of transposition errors showed: (a) an over-all age trend of nursery schoolers more than kindergarteners and first graders; (b) over-all sex difference of females more than males; (c) more errors on far-test than near-test occurred only for area on the first problem; and (d) a progressive decrease in errors across problems. It was concluded that the primary developmental factor constraining transposition was the younger childs initially slower differentiation of the critical features of the stimulus in the acquisition of a set to transpose.

IMPROVEMENT IN SELF-CONCEPT DURING PSYCHOTHERAPY IN A MAXIMUM SECURITY PRISON

24 prison inmates who participated in a psychotherapy program were compared on a self-concept inventory with 19 inmates who did not participate. Self-esteem was defined in terms of the discrepancy between actual-self and ideal-self measures. The greater the discrepancy, the lower the self-esteem. A significant number of Ss in the therapeutic program showed reduction in the discrepancy score after 1 yr. in the program, while the non-therapy Ss showed a slight, but nonsignificant, increase.

Emergence of a kwashiorkor-like syndrome associated with protein-calorie malnutrition in the developing rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta).

An infant rhesus monkey was separated from its mother at 90 days of age, housed individually, and at 120 days of age placed on a purified low protein diet containing 3.5% casein by weight. To enhance the effects of protein-calorie malnutrition, a protein-deficient diet containing 2.0% casein by weight was introduced at 415 days of age. When compared with other animals on an identical dietary regime, the subject manifested a reduced intake of food and a marked decrease in weight gain. Clinical symptomatology analogous to human kwashiorkor progressively developed into an acute phase as a result of protein deficiency and included: brittle, depigmented, and sparse hair; chronic diarrhea; dermatitis as “flaky-paint rash” on the extremities and “moist groin rash;” edema of the face and extremities; hypoalbuminemia; hypoproteinemia; retardation of growth and physical development; and wasting of muscle tissue. Within 172 days following the dietary shift from 3.5% to 2.0% casein, a terminal state was evidenced.