Robert S. Littlefield

Prerequisite conditions for self‐disclosing: A gender issue

Using a scheme previously developed by the authors to define conceptually self‐disclosure, this study focuses on one dimension found in that investigation— prerequisite for disclosure. The research examines gender differences in perceived importance placed on four conditions: setting, receiver, sender, and relationship characteristics judged to be needed before disclosing private information about oneself to others. The study also looks at the influence of topic on males’ and females’ use of conditions. Results suggest that women find sender and receiver characteristics more important as prerequisite conditions for self‐disclosure than do men. No significant effect of topic on the use of conditions was found for men or women.

Structural Pluralism, Ethnic Pluralism, and Community Newspapers

This study expanded the conceptual definition of community structural pluralism to include a consideration of community ethnic pluralism, and used that revised definition as a basis for analyzing the relationships among community characteristics and the orientations of local newspaper editors. Findings indicate that editors in more ethnically pluralistic communities are more likely to include ethnic minorities in their lists of influential persons and important news sources. Editors who include ethnic minorities in a list of important news sources are more likely to consider it important to cover stories about ethnic minorities.

The Value of Instructional Communication in Crisis Situations: Restoring Order to Chaos

This article explores the nature of instructional communication in responding to crisis situations. Through the lens of chaos theory, the relevance of instructional messages in restoring order is established. This perspective is further advanced through an explanation of how various learning styles impact the receptivity of various instructional messages during the acute phase of crises. We then summarize an exploratory study focusing on the relationship between learning styles and the demands of instructional messages in crisis situations. We conclude the article with a series of conclusions and implications.

A Receiver‐Based Approach to Effective Instructional Crisis Communication

Much research has informed the development of a valuable series of sender‐focused best practices for effective crisis communication. Relatively little crisis communication research, however, focuses on receiver‐focused best practices as related to eliciting appropriate actions before, during and after crisis events. Because effective instructional communication is measured by learner (i.e., receiver) outcome achievement of affective (perceived value), cognitive (comprehension) and behavioural (performance) variables, this study examined perceived message effectiveness and behavioural intention using the IDEA model of instructional risk and crisis communication. Results of this comparative quasi‐experimental study revealed that messages integrating all elements of the IDEA model were more effective than status quo messages and point to the need for continued research on effective instructional crisis communication message design.

The Interacting Arguments of Risk Communication in Response to Terrorist Hoaxes

Responding to terrorist hoaxes requires two arguments that “interact” (Perelman & Olbrechts-Tyteca, 1969). First, responders have a plan in place, pre-established or spontaneously generated, that can mitigate or manage any crisis emerging from the threat. Second, responders must scrutinize available evidence in order to recognize and refute false claims at the earliest point possible. This study examines the risk communication of the New Zealand governments response to a bioterrorist hoax. The study reveals that effective hoax responses attack the source, reinterpret the claims made by the hoaxer, and acknowledge the value of what is threatened.

High School Student Perceptions of the Efficacy of Debate Participation

This essay reports the findings of a national survey of high school debaters conducted at the 2001 National Forensic Leagues National Tournament regarding their perceptions of the efficacy of debate participation. Respondents (N = 193) answered open-ended questions modeled after the instrument developed by Williams et al. (2001) regarding the benefits and disadvantages of debate involvement. The high school debaters reported advantages similar to those cited by collegiate debaters. High school debaters were more concerned about perceived negative stigma associated with debate than collegiate debaters. Future research involving different segments of the high school debate community is suggested.

Improving Biosecurity through Instructional Crisis Communication: Lessons Learned from the PEDv Outbreak

Crises, by their nature, demand effectively designed and quickly delivered instructional messages that compel stakeholders to take appropriate actions to protect themselves and their assets. The challenges of crisis communication are intensified in crises involving unanticipated and relatively unknown disease outbreaks with the potential to spread exponentially. This study assesses the communication challenges and opportunities in such volatile crises through an analysis of the Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea virus (PEDv) outbreak that severely threatened the United States pork industry in 2013 and 2014. Interviews were conducted with 13 individuals directly involved in developing and distributing risk and crisis biosecurity messages during the PEDv outbreak. Participants were selected based on affiliation with the National Pork Board, American Association of Swine Veterinarians, university extension, or their swine industry expertise. Four generalizable implications emerged: 1) the advantage of maintaining flexibility in crisis communication planning; 2) the value of audience analysis and message adaptation; 3) the importance of understanding not only what to do, but also why the recommended actions are essential; and 4) the utility of risk/crisis communication and education both prior to and during a crisis event.

The Maple Leaf Foods recall: best practice interaction during a food-related crisis

Crisis situations for organisations prompt public responses to manage the effects of the crisis and maintain public confidence in the organisation or the safety of its products. This study of the Maple Leaf Foods listeriosis crisis of 2008 and the recall of its products examined the companys responses made after the recall to determine if they reflected the presence of best practices. The findings suggested that the strategic utilisation of particular audience-centred best practices enabled the company chief executive officer to focus on re-establishing public trust in the safety of its products. Prioritising organisational objectives as early in the crisis as possible, demonstrating flexibility when determining which best practice to use, and communicating quickly, honestly, and empathetically with the public are offered as practical suggestions for communication scholars and organisations experiencing crises.

Censorship or Free Speech: Controversy Over the Broadcasting of The Reagans

When Ronald and Nancy Reagan left the White House in 1989, they said goodbye to public life. The images of them leaving Washington and flying off to California were carefully staged as the final shots of what would become a very private existence for the former President and First Lady. Until his death at the age of 93, most news of Ronald and Nancy Reagan focused on his deteriorating condition and her devotion to him. When the policies of the Reagan Administration were attacked, the former President personally did not defend himself; but rather, supporters quickly countered with a ‘‘familiar and wellaccepted story’’ (Lewis 1987 280): ‘‘President Reagan restored America’s confidence, propelled its economy into the longest expansion in history, and, in Mrs. Thatcher’s words, ’won the Cold War without firing a single shot’’’ (Miller 2004). In addition, former Reagan insiders authored several sympathetic books that brought mostly positive media attention to the former president (Elber 2003); and admirers ‘‘launched a campaign to have at least one public building named for Reagan in each of America’s 3,067 counties’’ (Braxton and Baker 2003). The care taken to preserve this larger-than-life image of the former President with the public was not accidental. It remained protected until late in 2003, when the scheduled broadcast of a fictionalized, biographical television mini-series, The Reagans, threatened to show Ronald and Nancy Reagan in what loyalists thought was an unflattering, mean-spirited and unfair light. The Reagan inner circle was concerned about the effect this mini-series would have on the way people viewed the Reagan presidency. They knew the power of the media, and this mini-series had the potential to expose a new generation to the Reagan presidency and tarnish the final heroic image his supporters had hoped would be his legacy (Denton 1988). In the end, Reagan loyalists were successful in pressuring the CBS television network to cancel its prime time showing of the mini-series. Liberals called the cancellation censorship of a mini-series intended to portray Ronald and Nancy Reagan in a realistic manner; Conservatives characterized what happened as the exercise of free speech by the people with the intent of stopping an unjust and immoral act. To address these issues, the theoretical underpinnings of this study will be offered, followed by the context surrounding the controversy and the implications for a free society.

Factionalism as Argumentation: A Case Study of the Indigenous Communication Practices of Jemez Pueblo

This study identifies seven characteristics of argumentation and demonstrates how the factionalism of Jemez Pueblo in New Mexico serves as an indigenous form of argumentation for that society. We analyze two examples of factionalism: the case of the governors authority and the case for religious freedom. In both, six phases of factionalism are identified and found to illustrate how this form of argumentation provides a useful method of decision-making for the Jemez.