Robert S. Lockhart

Levels of processing: A framework for memory research

This paper briefly reviews the evidence for multistore theories of memory and points out some difficulties with the approach. An alternative framework for human memory research is then outlined in terms of depth or levels of processing. Some current data and arguments are reexamined in the light of this alternative framework and implications for further research considered.

The bilingual lexicon: Language-specific units in an integrated network

Five experiments were conducted to evaluate hypotheses concerning lexical organization in bilinguals. Previous work has shown that the repetition effect in lexical decision is restricted to intralingual conditions for English and Hindi. Experiments 1–3 each involved 12 English—French bilinguals and demonstrated that a previous finding generalizes to more similar languages and orthographies (English and French) and that it is unaffected by mixed-language test conditions. The results also demonstrated that although interlingual transfer occurs in response to translative activity during encoding, transfer does not occur as a result of tasks which emphasize meaning rather than translation. Experiment 4 involved 12 English—Hindi bilinguals in a two-word lexical decision task with semantically related and unrelated words under pure and mixed-language conditions. The results confirmed Meyer and Ruddys (1974, Bilingual word recognition: Organization and retrieval of a alternative lexical codes) unpublished report that semantic priming is present under mixed as well as pure language conditions, and further showed that when language is defined by orthography—as is the case for English and Hindi—there is no overall deficit for mixed-language conditions. Experiment 5 demonstrated that for interlingual semantic priming to occur under successive presentation conditions, the related concepts must follow one another immediately. The overall pattern of results suggests that although the unit of lexical representation in bilinguals is language specific, the units function in an integrated network.

Conceptual transfer insimple insight problems

Three experiments explored the conditions under which information presented in the first part of an experiment facilitates the subsequent solving of simple insight problems. We argue that previous unsuccessful attempts to obtain such facilitation are attributable to the experimenters’ failure to present this information in a form that induces the conceptual operations needed to solve the problem. Substantial facilitation is obtained if the information is presented in a form that induces a few seconds of puzzlement and then a clue is presented that leads to an appropriate reconception; if identical information is presented without such a period of puzzlement and reconception, no facilitation is observed. The results demonstrate that conceptual processing operations, not merely informational content, must be relevant if conceptual transfer is to occur. One possible mechanism involved in such transfer is the indexing of concepts such that they contain pointers to conceptually anomalous episodes

Distributional versus singular approaches to probability and errors in probabilistic reasoning.

Four experiments examined differences in probabilistic reasoning as a function of whether problems were presented in a frequentist or case-specific form. The experiments demonstrated that these different forms influence the likelihood of Ss committing the conjunction and disjunction fallacies. The authors contend that these 2 forms elicit different approaches to probability. Frequency problems, it is argued, elicit a distributional approach in which probabilities are equated with relative frequencies, whereas case-specific problems elicit a singular approach in which probabilities are equated with the propensities or causal forces operating in an individual case

Levels of processing, transfer-appropriate processing, and the concept of robust encoding

The theoretical status of levels of processing and its relation to the general principle of transfer-appropriate processing is discussed. One possible description of this relationship is that levels of processing has its effect by influencing the likelihood that the processing will prove to be transfer-appropriate. This transfer account of the levels effect is discussed in terms of the concept of robust encoding (Lockhart & Craik, 1990). Available evidence provides little support for any simple form of this concept, but a modified version is suggested as a possibility.

Encoding differences in recognition and recall.

After practice consisting of the free recall of five blocked categorized lists, Ss were presented a sixth list and then unexpectedly tested for recognition. After practice at recognition of the same five lists, Ss were unexpectedly tested for recall following presentation of the sixth test. Recognition performance was superior when items were encoded in anticipation of a recognition test. Intracategory serial position functions for Ss anticipating recall tests were different from those anticipating recognition tests regardless of the retention test employed. The role of control processes in recall and recognition testing is discussed

The Facilitation of Recognition by Recall.

Existing evidence suggests that the free recall of an item does not facilitate its subsequent recognition. An analysis of this evidence indicates that even if recall did facilitate the recognition of individual items, previously employed paradigms are such that its overall effect might not be readily apparent. Results are reported which confirm this prediction and show that the facilitating effect of free recall on recognition is quite substantial.

Recency discrimination predicted from absolute lag judgments

An experiment is described which tests the plausibility of the assumption that two-alternative forced-choice (2AFC) recency discrimination is based on an independent lag estimate of each item. 39 Ss made absolute recency judgments for items (common nouns) at varying lag intervals while an independent group of 74 Ss made 2AFC judgments for pairs of items at comparable lag combinations. It was found that the absolute judgment data generated accurate predictions of 2AFC performance.

Levels of Processing and Zinchenko's Approach to Memory Research

In this article we outline some of the main ideas and observations embodied in the levels of processing approach to memory research (Craik and Lockhart, 1972; Craik and Tulving, 1975) and compare these concepts and findings with those previously reported by P. I. Zinchenko. There are clearly many similarities between the two sets of ideas, as pointed out by Meshcheryakov. We acknowledge these similarities while also pointing out differences between the two approaches. The field of memory studies would benefit from a closer integration between the ideas stemming from activity theory and those in the Western tradition.

What Do Infants Remember

The title of this chapter is intended to reflect my concern with the content and function of infant memory rather than with process and mechanism. Being neither a student of infancy nor a developmental psychologist, I will comment from the viewpoint of someone interested in adult memory. I do so with some hesitation: my reading of work in infant memory suggests that the area has already been too greatly influenced by concepts drawn from the study of adults.