Robert W. Mysłajek

Recovery of large carnivores in Europe’s modern human-dominated landscapes

The conservation of large carnivores is a formidable challenge for biodiversity conservation. Using a data set on the past and current status of brown bears (Ursus arctos), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), gray wolves (Canis lupus), and wolverines (Gulo gulo) in European countries, we show that roughly one-third of mainland Europe hosts at least one large carnivore species, with stable or increasing abundance in most cases in 21st-century records. The reasons for this overall conservation success include protective legislation, supportive public opinion, and a variety of practices making coexistence between large carnivores and people possible. The European situation reveals that large carnivores and people can share the same landscape. Many populations of brown bears, lynx, grey wolves, and wolverines persist successfully outside protected areas in Europe. Success for Europes large carnivores? Despite pessimistic forecasts, Europes large carnivores are making a comeback. Chapron et al. report that sustainable populations of brown bear, Eurasian lynx, gray wolf, and wolverine persist in one-third of mainland Europe. Moreover, many individuals and populations are surviving and increasing outside protected areas set aside for wildlife conservation. Coexistence alongside humans has become possible, argue the authors, because of improved public opinion and protective legislation. Science, this issue p. 1517

Patterns of wolfCanis lupus predation on wild and domestic ungulates in the Western Carpathian Mountains (S Poland)

We studied the predator-prey relationships among wolvesCanis lupus Linnaeus, 1758, wild ungulates, and livestock in the managed mountain forests of the Western Carpathians (S Poland). Though roe deerCapreolus capreolus dominated in the community of wild ungulates and livestock was abundant within the study area, the three wolf packs preyed mainly on red deerCervus elaphus (42% of food biomass), and next on the roe deer (33%). In both species of deer, wolves preferred killing females and juveniles more frequently than expected from their respective shares in the populations. Wild boarSus scrofa made up 4% of the food biomass, in accordance with its low share in the ungulates community. Despite the easy access of wolves to numerous unprotected sheep flocks pastured on meadows among woods, livestock constituted only 3% of the wolf food biomass. Wolves preyed mostly on sheep (88%), killing on average 34 per year. Most cases of livestock depredation occurred in August –September, on pastures located most often >50 m apart from buildings. Usually, lack of proper guarding was conducive to wolf attacks.

Habitat selection by wolvesCanis lupus in the uplands and mountains of southern Poland

Using data from the National Wolf Census, carried out in Poland in 2000–2001, and GIS techniques we analysed habitat selection by wolvesCanis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 in uplands and mountains of southern Poland. We compared ten habitat variables and two parameters related to wolf abundance in 52 circular plots (154 km2 each) with recorded wolves and 97 randomly selected plots with no signs of wolf presence. Wolf plots were characterized by higher elevation and closer location to the state border than wolf-free plots. Furthermore, wolf plots had higher forest cover, but smaller number of villages and towns and shorter railways and roads than plots without wolves. The best model explaining wolf distribution included forest cover, number of villages, length of roads and railway lines. Compared to northern Poland, the southern part of the country offers worse habitats for wolves due to significantly denser network of settlements and transportation routes.

A Triple-Isotope Approach to Predict the Breeding Origins of European Bats

Despite a commitment by the European Union to protect its migratory bat populations, conservation efforts are hindered by a poor understanding of bat migratory strategies and connectivity between breeding and wintering grounds. Traditional methods like mark-recapture are ineffective to study broad-scale bat migratory patterns. Stable hydrogen isotopes (δD) have been proven useful in establishing spatial migratory connectivity of animal populations. Before applying this tool, the method was calibrated using bat samples of known origin. Here we established the potential of δD as a robust geographical tracer of breeding origins of European bats by measuring δD in hair of five sedentary bat species from 45 locations throughout Europe. The δD of bat hair strongly correlated with well-established spatial isotopic patterns in mean annual precipitation in Europe, and therefore was highly correlated with latitude. We calculated a linear mixed-effects model, with species as random effect, linking δD of bat hair to precipitation δD of the areas of hair growth. This model can be used to predict breeding origins of European migrating bats. We used δ13C and δ15N to discriminate among potential origins of bats, and found that these isotopes can be used as variables to further refine origin predictions. A triple-isotope approach could thereby pinpoint populations or subpopulations that have distinct origins. Our results further corroborated stable isotope analysis as a powerful method to delineate animal migrations in Europe.

Habitat suitability, corridors and dispersal barriers for large carnivores in Poland

Carnivores are often particularly sensitive to landscape fragmentation. Ecological corridors may help to connect local populations, ensuring gene flow and retaining viable meta-populations. We aimed to establish habitat suitability models for two large carnivores in Poland, the grey wolf Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 and the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx Linnaeus, 1758, based on ecological niche factor analysis (ENFA). Secondly, we calculated least cost paths (LCPs) based on cost values obtained from ENFA. Thirdly, we determined structures that might act as barriers, thus diminishing the value of the corridor unless appropriate conservation measures are taken. We compared some of the results with actual dispersal data of four lynx in eastern Poland. Results indicate that both species are highly marginalised. Less habitat that is currently available in Poland is suitable for lynx than for wolves. We determined a total of 76 LCPs. Comparison of these theoretical corridors with actual dispersal routes suggests that the traits of calculated LCPs are mostly within the range of those of real routes. We highlight a variety of features that might act as barriers, such as major roads (including planned highways), urbanized areas, and large un-forested areas. We give suggestions where concerted conservation efforts (eg wildlife passages) might be particularly well-directed.

Analyses of least cost paths for determining effects of habitat types on landscape permeability: wolves in Poland

Determining ecological corridors is crucial for conservation efforts in fragmented habitats. Commonly employed least cost path (LCP) analysis relies on the underlying cost matrix. By using Ecological Niche Factor Analysis, we minimized the problems connected with subjective cost assessment or the use of presence/absence data. We used data on the wolf presence/absence in Poland to identify LCPs connecting patches of suitable wolf habitat, factors that influence patch occupancy, and compare LCPs between different genetic subpopulations. We found that a lower proportion of cities and roads surrounds the most densely populated patches. Least cost paths between areas where little dispersal takes place (i.e., leading to unpopulated patches or between different genetic subpopulations) ran through a higher proportion of roads and human settlements. They also crossed larger maximal distances over deforested areas. We propose that, apart from supplying the basis for direct conservation efforts, LCPs can be used to determine what factors might facilitate or hinder dispersal by comparing different subsets of LCPs. The methods employed can be widely applicable to gain more in-depth information on potential dispersal barriers for large carnivores.

Helminth infections in faecal samples of wolves Canis lupus L. from the western Beskidy Mountains in southern Poland

Eighty-nine samples of grey wolf (Canis lupus L.) faeces were collected between 2002 and 2004 from two areas in the western Beskidy Mts (south Poland). Helminth eggs were observed in 56.2% of faeces examined. These included: Alaria alata (2.2%), taeniid eggs (11.2%), Toxocara canis (5.6%), Toxascaris leonina (1.1%), Eucoleus aerophilus (14.6%), Ancylostoma caninum (12.3%), Uncinaria stenocephala (37%) and unidentified roundworm eggs of the family Strongyloididae (1.1%). Eucoleus aerophilus is recorded for the first time from Poland. The results are compared with the helminth fauna of other wolf populations in Europe.

Distribution, characteristics and use of shelters by the Eurasian badger Meles meles along an altitudinal gradient in the Western Carpathians, S Poland

Abstract. We studied the location of Eurasian badger (Meles meles) setts in relation to various environmental factors, and attempted to assess the role of competition with other burrowing carnivores and the importance of human activity on their sett selection in the Western Carpathians (southern Poland). Excavated dens (53 %), caves and rock crevices (43 %), and burrows under buildings (4 %), were used by badgers as permanent shelters. Setts were located mostly in foothills (< 680 m a.s.l.), but selection for den location within the lower montane zone (680-980 m a.s.l.) was also observed. Excavated setts were recorded only up to 640 m a.s.l., while setts in rock crevices occurred up to 1050 m a.s.l. Badger shelters were mainly situated in forests or covered by dense bushes. Badgers avoided northern slopes in all altitudinal zones, and located their burrows mostly on SE or W slopes in foothills, and S or E slopes in montane zones. Setts were placed further from human settlements and main roads, but closer to meadows with high earthworm biomass, when compared with random points. Within badger territories, 1-12 setts were recorded. Badgers occupying territories which included both foothills and montane zones used burrows at various altitudes, but their main setts used for overwintering, were located exclusively above 800 m a.s.l. We conclude that sett location by badgers in mountains is shaped not only by the availability of cover and geological factors influencing digging, but also by human pressure and distance to foraging areas.

Bats (Chiroptera) of the Silesian Beskid Mountains

During a study conducted in 2000-2007 the following 15 species of bats were recorded in the Silesian Beskid Mts. (Western Carpathians, S Poland): Rhinolophus hipposideros, Myotis myotis, M. bechsteinii, M. nattereri, M. emarginatus, M. mystacinus, M. brandtii, M. daubentonii, Vespertilio murinus, Eptesicus nilssonii, E. serotinus, Nyctalus leisleri, N. noctula, Plecotus auritus, and Barbastella barbastellus. The survey of the bat population was carried out by catching bats in nets, with the dominant species captured being M. daubentonii (37.0%), P. auritus (16.0%), M. mystacinus (11.4%), and M. nattereri (10.4%). Bats from the genera Eptesicus and Nyctalus were only caught on very rare occasions. The bat community found in caves consisted of seven species, mainly R. hipposideros (59.7%) and M. myotis (26.7%).

Diet of the Eurasian badger (Meles meles) in the Western Carpathians and its implications for species conservation in Poland

Food composition of the Eurasian badger Meles meles was studied in the mountain zone and foothills of the Western Carpathians (Southern Poland). The diet, obtained by scat analysis, was compared with availability of earthworms, fruits, amphibians, rodents and ground nesting birds (capercaillie Tetrao urogallus and hazel grouse Bonasa bonasia) within both altitudinal zones. Earthworms and fruits were the most abundant food source in the foothills, while amphibians were scarce and rodents were equally available in both altitudinal zones. Capercaillie and hazel grouse occurred in the forests above 560 m a.s.l. In the foothills, vegetable matter (mainly fruits), constituted 56.3%, and earthworms 39.6%, of the biomass consumed, while mammals were supplementary resources (2.9%). In the mountains, the importance of vegetable matter was smaller (47.9%). Earthworms and insects had a similar share (37.8% and 1.8%, respectively), but mammals were eaten much more intensively (13.9%). Birds (exclusively domestic hen) were taken by badgers only in the foothills (0.6%). There was a seasonal variation in badger diet composition in both altitudinal zones, as earthworms dominated in spring, while fruits were eaten mainly in summer and autumn. The composition of the badgers’ diet only slightly differed between foothills and mountains. This was probably caused by regular movement of badgers between elevational zones during foraging. We conclude that the present hunting regulation, which allows year-round hunting on badgers in areas inhabited by capercaillie, is not justified.