Roberta Visconti

Inhibition of Th1 Immune Response by Glucocorticoids: Dexamethasone Selectively Inhibits IL-12-Induced Stat4 Phosphorylation in T Lymphocytes

Glucocorticoids are widely used in the therapy of inflammatory, autoimmune, and allergic diseases. As the end-effectors of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, endogenous glucocorticoids also play an important role in suppressing innate and cellular immune responses. Previous studies have indicated that glucocorticoids inhibit Th1 and enhance Th2 cytokine secretion. IL-12 promotes Th1 cell-mediated immunity, while IL-4 stimulates Th2 humoral-mediated immunity. Here, we examined the regulatory effect of glucocorticoids on key elements of IL-12 and IL-4 signaling. We first investigated the effect of dexamethasone on IL-12-inducible genes and showed that dexamethasone inhibited IL-12-induced IFN-γ secretion and IFN regulatory factor-1 expression in both NK and T cells. This occurred even though the level of expression of IL-12 receptors and IL-12-induced Janus kinase phosphorylation remained unaltered. However, dexamethasone markedly inhibited IL-12-induced phosphorylation of Stat4 without altering its expression. This was specific, as IL-4-induced Stat6 phosphorylation was not affected, and mediated by the glucocorticoid receptor, as it was antagonized by the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU486. Moreover, transfection experiments showed that dexamethasone reduced responsiveness to IL-12 through the inhibition of Stat4-dependent IFN regulatory factor-1 promoter activity. We conclude that blocking IL-12-induced Stat4 phosphorylation, without altering IL-4-induced Stat6 phosphorylation, appears to be a new suppressive action of glucocorticoids on the Th1 cellular immune response and may help explain the glucocorticoid-induced shift toward the Th2 humoral immune response.

Inhibition of HMGI-C protein synthesis suppresses retrovirally induced neoplastic transformation of rat thyroid cells.

Elevated expression of the three high-mobility group I (HMGI) proteins (HMGI, HMGY, and HMGI-C) has previously been correlated with the presence of a highly malignant phenotype in epithelial and fibroblastic rat thyroid cells and in experimental thyroid, lung, mammary, and skin carcinomas. Northern (RNA) blot and run-on analyses demonstrated that the induction of HMGI genes in transformed thyroid cells occurs at the transcriptional level. An antisense methodology to block HMGI-C protein synthesis was then used to analyze the role of this protein in the process of thyroid cell transformation. Transfection of an antisense construct for the HMGI-C cDNA into normal thyroid cells, followed by infection with transforming myeloproliferative sarcoma virus or Kirsten murine sarcoma virus, generated cell lines that expressed significant levels of the retroviral transforming oncogenes v-mos or v-ras-Ki and removed the dependency on thyroid-stimulating hormones. However, in contrast with untransfected cells or cells transfected with the sense construct, those containing the antisense construct did not demonstrate the appearance of any malignant phenotypic markers (growth in soft agar and tumorigenicity in athymic mice). A great reduction of the HMGI-C protein levels and the absence of the HMGI(Y) proteins was observed in the HMGI-C antisense-transfected, virally infected cells. Therefore, the HMGI-C protein seems to play a key role in the transformation of these thyroid cells.

Expression of the neoplastic phenotype by human thyroid carcinoma cell lines requires NFkappaB p65 protein expression.

We have investigated the role of the NFκB complex in the process of thyroid carcinogenesis by analysing thyroid carcinoma cell lines. A significant increase in p65 NFκB mRNA and protein expression, compared to normal thyroid cultures or tissue, was found in all of the cancer cell lines. Conversely, only a modest increase in the p50 NFκB mRNA and protein was found in most, but not all carcinoma cell lines. The block of p65 protein synthesis with specific antisense oligonucleotides greatly reduced the ability of two undifferentiated carcinoma cell lines to form colonies in agar and reduced their growth rate. On the other hand, no effect was observed in the same cell lines when treated with p50 specific antisense oligonucleotides. These inhibitory effects seem to be mediated by the suppression of c-myc gene expression, since treatment with antisense oligonucleotides for p65 gene interfered negatively with c-myc gene expression. Our results indicate that activation of the NFκB complex by overexpression of p65 plays a critical role in the process of thyroid cell transformation.

STAT4 serine phosphorylation is critical for IL-12-induced IFN-γ production but not for cell proliferation

T helper 1 (TH1) differentiation and IFN-γ production are crucial in cell-mediated immune responses. IL-12 is an important regulator of this process and mediates its effects through signal transducer and activator of transcription 4 (STAT4). IFN-γ production is also regulated by the p38 mitogen-activated kinase pathway, although the mechanisms are ill-defined. We show here that GADD45-β and GADD45-γ can induce STAT4 S721 phosphorylation via the MKK6/p38 pathway. Thus, STAT4 could be a target that accounts for the defects in cell-mediated immunity associated with perturbations in the p38 pathway. To investigate the biological significance of STAT4 S721 phosphorylation, we reconstituted primary spleen cells from STAT4-deficient mice with wild-type and mutated STAT4, by using a retroviral gene transduction. We demonstrated that expression of wild-type STAT4, but not the S721A mutant, restored normal TH1 differentiation and IFN-γ synthesis. The inability of STAT4 S721 to restore IFN-γ production was not caused by decreased IL-12R expression because the STAT4 S721 mutant also failed to restore IFN-γ production in STAT4-deficient IL-12Rβ2 transgenic cells. Importantly, STAT4 S721A-transduced cells showed normal proliferative response to IL-12, illustrating that serine phosphorylation is not required for IL-12-induced proliferation. Additionally, the results imply the existence of STAT4 serine phosphorylation-dependent and -independent target genes. We conclude that phosphorylation of STAT4 on both tyrosine and serine residues is important in promoting normal TH1 differentiation and IFN-γ secretion.

Signalling of the Ret receptor tyrosine kinase through the c-Jun NH2-terminal protein kinases (JNKS): evidence for a divergence of the ERKs and JNKs pathways induced by Ret.

The RET proto-oncogene encodes a functional receptor tyrosine kinase (Ret) for the Glial cell line Derived Neurotrophic Factor (GDNF). RET is involved in several neoplastic and non-neoplastic human diseases. Oncogenic activation of RET is detected in human papillary thyroid tumours and in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 syndromes. Inactivating mutations of RET have been associated to the congenital megacolon, i.e. Hirschprungs disease. In order to identify pathways that are relevant for Ret signalling to the nucleus, we have investigated its ability to induce the c-Jun NH2-terminal protein kinases (JNK). Here we show that triggering the endogenous Ret, expressed in PC12 cells, induces JNK activity; moreover, Ret is able to activate JNK either when transiently transfected in COS-1 cells or when stably expressed in NIH3T3 fibroblasts or in PC Cl 3 epithelial thyroid cells. JNK activation is dependent on the Ret kinase function, as a kinase-deficient RET mutant, associated with Hirschsprungs disease, fails to activate JNK. The pathway leading to the activation of JNK by RET is clearly divergent from that leading to the activation of ERK: substitution of the tyrosine 1062 of Ret, the Shc binding site, for phenylalanine abrogates ERK but not JNK activation. Experiments conducted with dominant negative mutants or with negative regulators demonstrate that JNK activation by Ret is mediated by Rho/Rac related small GTPases and, particularly, by Cdc42.

Positive Effects of Glucocorticoids on T Cell Function by Up-Regulation of IL-7 Receptor α

Despite the effects of glucocorticoids on immune function, relatively little is known about glucocorticoid-inducible genes and how their products may regulate lymphocyte function. Using DNA microarray technology to analyze gene expression in PBMC from healthy donors, we identified IL-7Rα as a glucocorticoid-inducible gene. This observation was confirmed at the mRNA and protein levels. Conversely, TCR signaling decreased IL-7Rα expression, and the relative strength of signaling between these two receptors determined the final IL-7Rα levels. The up-regulation of IL-7Rα by glucocorticoids was associated with enhanced IL-7-mediated signaling and function. Moreover, IL-7-mediated inhibition of apoptosis at increasing concentrations of glucocorticoids is consistent with enhanced cell sensitivity to IL-7 following glucocorticoid exposure. These observations provide a mechanism by which glucocorticoids may have a positive influence on T cell survival and function.

Cloning and molecular characterization of a novel gene strongly induced by the adenovirus E1A gene in rat thyroid cells.

Expression of the adenovirus E1A gene in the rat thyroid differentiated cell line PC Cl 3 induces thyrotropin-independent cell growth and impairs differentiation. However, the malignant phenotype is achieved only when the PC E1A cells are infected with other murine retroviruses carrying the v-abl, v-raf or polyoma middle-T genes. To determine through which genes E1A affects thyroid cells, we differentially screened PC Cl 3 and PC E1A cells. Here we report a new gene, named CL2, that is upregulated in PC E1A cells. The CL2 transcript is 4.4 kb long and encodes a 949 amino-acid protein. Conceptual translation of the open reading frame showed one product with a signal peptide, multiple nuclear localization signals and three newly described domains. Furthermore, in vivo, this protein was located juxtanuclear, which is suggestive of Golgian localization, and also in cytoplasm and nucleus/nucleolus. Finally, CL2 gene expression was drastically downregulated in human thyroid neoplastic cell lines and tissues.

Rat protein tyrosine phosphatase eta suppresses the neoplastic phenotype of retrovirally transformed thyroid cells through the stabilization of p27(Kip1).

ABSTRACT The r-PTPη gene encodes a rat receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase whose expression is negatively regulated by neoplastic cell transformation. Here we first demonstrate a dramatic reduction in DEP-1/HPTPη (the human homolog of r-PTPη) expression in a panel of human thyroid carcinomas. Subsequently, we show that the reexpression of the r-PTPη gene in highly malignant rat thyroid cells transformed by retroviruses carrying the v-mos and v-ras-Kioncogenes suppresses their malignant phenotype. Cell cycle analysis demonstrated that r-PTPη caused G1 growth arrest and increased the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27Kip1protein level by reducing the proteasome-dependent degradation rate. We propose that the r-PTPη tumor suppressor activity is mediated by p27Kip1 protein stabilization, because suppression of p27Kip1 protein synthesis using p27-specific antisense oligonucleotides blocked the growth-inhibitory effect induced by r-PTPη. Furthermore, we provide evidence that in v-mos-or v-ras-Ki-transformed thyroid cells, the p27Kip1 protein level was regulated by the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathway and that r-PTPη regulated p27Kip1 stability by preventing v-mos- or v-ras-Ki-induced MAP kinase activation.

Molecular aspects of primary immunodeficiencies: lessons from cytokine and other signaling pathways

Numerous examples indicate that mammalian development can be entirely normal in the absence of the immune system; indeed, prior to birth, individuals with even very severe immunodeficiencies are developmentally unaffected. Perhaps it is not surprising, therefore, that more than 95 different primary immunodeficiency syndromes have been identified, encompassing defects in lymphocytes, phagocytes, and complement proteins. Indeed, within the past several years, more than 70 separate genes have been identified whose mutations cause immunodeficiency. These discoveries have been made both by using candidate gene approaches and by positional cloning. In some cases, the generation of gene-targeted mice preceded the identification of human mutations, whereas in other cases, the reverse was true. Therapy for these disorders, ranging from replacement therapy to bone marrow transplantation and gene therapy, has also moved at a rapid pace. This field therefore provides outstanding examples of the power of molecular medicine, with tremendous opportunities for interplay between basic and clinical science. Many of the processes that govern development of lymphoid and hematopoietic cells are now understood in some detail. We know that the growth and development of hematopoietic precursors, which develop in the fetal liver and bone marrow, are dependent upon a panoply of cytokines. In addition, lymphocytes require appropriate signals from antigen receptors to mature properly (Figure ​(Figure1).1). Additionally, other receptors and counter-receptors on lymphoid and antigen-presenting cells are critical for initiating immune responses (Figure ​(Figure2).2). We will provide examples in which mutations affect each of these steps and consequently result in immunodeficiency (Table ​(Table1).1). Several excellent reviews provide comprehensive discussion of the genetic basis of primary immunodeficiencies (1, 2). Our goal is not to summarize this field in its entirety; rather, a major focus of this review will be the role of cytokines and their receptors in the pathogenesis of primary immunodeficiencies. Additionally, the identification of new genes associated with immunodeficiency disorders, insights from patient-derived mutations, the heterogeneity of clinical presentations, the significance of revertants, and advances in gene therapy will be highlighted. To an extent, the areas emphasized are also a reflection of our interests, but in general the lessons are applicable to most of the diseases encompassed by primary immunodeficiencies. Figure 1 Schematic representation of lymphoid development and genetic lesions leading to immunodeficiency. Figure 2 The development of lymphoid cells is dependent upon the expression and signaling by cytokine receptors, antigen receptors, and adhesion/accessory molecules. Mutations of many different genes can interfere with proper lymphoid development and function ... Table 1 Defects leading to primary immune deficiency

The RFG oligomerization domain mediates kinase activation and re-localization of the RET/PTC3 oncoprotein to the plasma membrane.

The RET/PTC3 oncogene arises from the fusion between the N-terminal encoding domain of the RFG gene and the tyrosine kinase encoding domain of RET receptor. RET/PTC3 is very frequent in papillary thyroid carcinomas, especially in children exposed to the Chernobyl accident. We have studied the functional consequences of the RFG–RET fusion. Here we show that the N-terminal coiled-coil domain of RGF mediates oligomerization and activation of the kinase and of the transforming capability of RET/PTC3. In addition, the RFG coiled-coil domain mediates a physical association between RET/PTC3 and RGF proteins, rendering RFG a bona fide substrate of RET/PTC3 kinase. Finally, we show that the coiled-coil domain of RGF is essential for the distribution of the RET/PTC3 protein at the membrane/particulate cell compartment level, where also most of the RFG protein is localized. We propose that fusion to the RFG coiled-coil domain provides RET kinase with a scaffold that mediates oligomerization and re-localization of the RET/PTC3 protein, a process that may be crucial for the signalling of this specific RET/PTC variant.