Roberto Castro

Violence Against Women in Mexico: A Study of Abuse Before and During Pregnancy

OBJECTIVE We identified the prevalence and types of violence experienced by pregnant women, the ways victimization changed during pregnancy from the year prior to pregnancy, and factors associated with violence during pregnancy. METHODS We interviewed 914 pregnant women treated in health clinics in Mexico about violence during and prior to pregnancy, violence during childhood and against their own children, and other socioeconomic indicators. RESULTS Approximately one quarter of the women experienced violence during pregnancy. The severity of emotional violence increased during pregnancy, whereas physical and sexual violence decreased. The strongest predictors of abuse were violence prior to pregnancy, low socioeconomic status, parental violence witnessed by women in childhood, and violence in the abusive partners childhood. The probability of violence during pregnancy for women experiencing all of these factors was 61%. CONCLUSIONS Violence is common among pregnant women, but pregnancy does not appear to be an initiating factor. Intergenerational violence is highly predictive of violence during pregnancy.

La investigación sobre apoyo social en salud: situación actual y nuevos desafíos

On the borderline between sociology and psychology, the concept of social support has made it possible to develop a whole research tradition aimed at explaining some of the differences existing in the distribution of mental and physical disease. The concept of social support itself, however, still presents some ambiguities which must be clarified. These problems are discussed and it is showed and shows that the topic can be enriched with the contribution of the social sciences. Different definitions of the concept itself, are briefly analysed and the complexity and multidimensional character of social support are highlighted. The association between social support and health is discussed. The differences and implications of the direct effect model and the buffering effect model are addressed, and the relevance of the construct of social support is enhanced. The need to study social support not only as a likely determinant of some forms of disease, but also as a dependent variable, is brought out. Some recent developments in the study of factors associated with the availability of social support are discussed. It is shown that social support is a product of certain social factors which can be clearly identified by sociological analysis. In order to illustrate this point, the structural determinants of a specific dimension of social support-attention-are discussed. The importance of structural variables like social class and gender in attempting to explain the differential distribution of certain forms of social support is emphasized. It is proposed, on the theoretical level, that the intersection between two related autonomous constructs-social class and social support-may better explain those aspects of these concepts that are of importance to observed heterogeneity in the distribution of mental and physical health. Different theoretical and methodological approaches to the understanding of the determinants of social support and its effect on health are suggested.

Prevalence and determinants of male partner violence against Mexican women: a population-based study

OBJECTIVE To determine the prevalence of and risk factors for violence against women, inflicted by their male partners, in a representative sample of women residing in the metropolitan area of Cuernavaca Morelos, Mexico. MATERIAL AND METHODS A population-based study was conducted from June to September 1998, among 1,535 women aged 15 to 49 years. Principal components analysis was used to determine the domains of violence that served as the dependent variable. Polynomial logistic regression models were used to estimate odds ratios (OR), with 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS Prevalence of low-moderate level violence was 35.8%, while prevalence of severe violence was 9.5%. The lifetime prevalence of reported rape was 5.9%. The main factors associated with violence were socio-economic status (OR=0.57; 95% CI=0.34-0.95); education level, both of the women studied (test for trend p=0.01) and of the male partner (test for trend p=0.002); number of years living with partner (OR=2.63; 95% CI=1.55-4.45), alcohol use (OR=2.56; 95% CI=2.02-3.25), illegal drug use by partner (OR=6.17; 95% CI=2.37-16.03); violence during childhood (OR=3.40; 95% CI=2.23-5.18), and a history of rape (OR=5.89; 95% CI=2.78-12.5). CONCLUSIONS Study findings confirm that violence against women is a prevalent phenomenon in Mexico. Awareness-raising campaigns about male partner violence should bring this important issue to the front of public discussion. Such efforts will help assure that future generations do not experience partner violence to the extent that contemporary Mexican women do.

La investigación sobre violencia contra las mujeres en América Latina: entre el empirismo ciego y la teoría sin datos

Research on violence against women in Latin America presents an interesting paradox: while the number of studies is quite small, there also appears to be a sense that research on this topic has been exhausted, despite the lack of any definitive responses to the nature and causes of the problem. This results from the boom in studies with a strong empirical focus, lacking any basis in more general sociological theory. On the other hand, research using social theory tends to ignore the existing mediations between structural arrangements and any individual specific behavior, as well as the interactive nature of domestic violence. Meanwhile, empirical research presents inconsistent results and tends to run into methodological problems such as operational confusion, contradictory findings, and results and recommendations that are too obvious. New research designs must be developed to enrich the field and which are solidly based on the body of conceptual knowledge in social sciences, abandoning designs without theory and those which are merely statistical. Only then will it be possible to imagine the new research questions that the problem of violence requires.

The Weakness of Family Ties and Their Perpetuating Effects on Gender Violence A Qualitative Study in Mexico

Research into intimate partner violence has shown that social isolation constitutes a risk factor, and the presence of social networks can be an important source of social support. This research note presents some results of an empirical study carried out in Mexico into womens social relations, especially their family relations, and their role in the promotion of traditional gender norms. Findings indicate that some of the main conditions that are associated with the production of violence against women are either generated or reinforced within the realm of what can be regarded as womens “strong ties.”

Prevalence and severity of domestic violence among pregnant women, Mexico

OBJECTIVES To determine whether pregnancy is a risk factor for domestic violence and to compare prevalence and severity of violence reported by women before and during pregnancy. METHODS There were interviewed 468 women in the third trimester of pregnancy who were seen during prenatal visits at public clinics in the state of Morelos, Mexico. Emotional, physical and sexual violence were investigated. A severity index was built up. Logistic regression analysis was applied in order to identify the main variables associated to domestic violence during pregnancy. RESULTS The prevalence of domestic violence did not change significantly before and during pregnancy (32%). The prevalence of each type of violence remained the same. About 27% of women who reported violence during pregnancy did not have experience it before, and a comparable proportion had experienced violence before but not during pregnancy. The severity of emotional violence significantly increased during pregnancy (compared to the previous year) whereas the severity of physical violence decreased. Variables most clearly related to violence during pregnancy were: couples past history of child abuse; women witnessing domestic violence during childhood; and violence in the year before pregnancy. Several risk scenarios were identified, which could be helpful for health care providers. CONCLUSIONS The results showed that emotional violence is more prevalent than physical and sexual violence, allowing for a better understanding of this phenomenon.

Risks for abuse against pregnant Hispanic women: Morelos, Mexico and Los Angeles County, California

BACKGROUND Although violence against women is gaining international attention as a prevention priority, little is known about how risks differ across countries. METHODS A comparative study of violence against pregnant Mexican women in Morelos, Mexico, and Latina women in Los Angeles County, California, United States. In 1998 and 1999, women in prenatal clinics were interviewed about psychological abuse and sexual and physical violence by their partner, during and the 1 year prior to the index pregnancy. The overall response rate for Morelos was 99%, with a sample size of 914; Los Angeles County had a response rate of 96.9%, with a sample size of 219. RESULTS Women in Morelos reported a higher prevalence of violence compared to women in the California (14.8% v 11.9%, respectively). A partner aged <20 years was associated with increased violence in both countries, but the association of violence with other socioeconomic factors differed by country. For example, employed women had higher odds of violence in California but lower odds in Morelos. Women who experienced violence during both the year prior to pregnancy and as a child were more than 25 times more likely to be abused during pregnancy than women not reporting this type of abuse. CONCLUSION The identification of factors associated with violence against women, especially as they differ by culture and ethnicity, will help clinicians to better identify victims and to design and implement culturally appropriate prevention programs.

A Study on Maternal Mortality in Mexico Through a Qualitative Approach

This report presents the main qualitative results of a verbal autopsy study carried out in three states of Mexico, which aimed at identifying the factors associated with maternal mortality that could be subject to modifications through concrete interventions. By reviewing death certificates issued in 1995, it was possible to identify 164 households where a maternal death had occurred. One hundred forty-five of these households were visited, and a precoded questionnaire was completed to explore socioeconomic and living conditions, as well as causes of death. An open-ended question to prompt the relatives to narrate all the facts that led to the maternal deaths was included in the questionnaire. This study presents an analysis of that question, focusing on the delays in the care-seeking process and organized according to the model of the three delays: in deciding to seek care, in reaching a care facility, and in actually receiving care after arrival. Additionally, problems related to quality of care are examined. For analysis of the accounts, structural, interactional/community, and subjective variables were identified that allowed refining of our understanding of the problem of maternal deaths. Finally, based on the findings of the study, this article presents a series of recommendations, highlighting that interventions should address the early stages of a complication and focus on decreasing the various forms of inequality (gender and socioeconomic) associated with the occurrence of maternal deaths.

Household and community responses to HIV and AIDS in developing countries

Abstract Household and community responses to HIV and AIDS are shaped by the contexts in which women, men and children live and socialize. In this study carried out in the Dominican Republic, Mexico, India, Tanzania and Thailand, factors relating to economic resources and gender influenced the forms of care and support made available to people living with HIV and AIDS. Adults and children in poorer households and communities suffered most. Beliefs about sexual transmission were influenced by what was, and was not, thought to be appropriate conduct for men and women. Prevailing gender relations affected what care was provided, by whom, to people living with HIV and AIDS. Future programmes of HIV-related prevention and care should place more stress on the vulnerability of poorer households and women. More attention needs to be paid to investing in, and supporting, those in the informal sector (mostly women) who provide care. Furthermore, the responsibilities of men to appraise their own HIV-related risk and...

Severity of Intimate Partner Abuse Indicators as Perceived by Women in Mexico and the United States

SUMMARY Objective: Women in Cuernavaca, Mexico and Los Angeles, California were surveyed to examine differences in their perceptions of the severity of domestic violence indicators. Methods: One hundred twenty women in each country rated the severity of 26 domestic violence indicators which were part of an abuse screen used for an ongoing study of the prevalence of abuse. Rasch analysis was conducted to determine the linear relationship in the perceptions of the severity of each event between the two countries. Results: The Rasch calibrated logit values show that women in the US rated 24 of the 26 events as more severe than women in Mexico. However, items were ranked in similar order and a clear linear pattern was established. In both countries, being shot with a gun was the most severe event and a partner becoming jealous was the least severe. Conclusion: The country of origin did not dictate which events were most severe but did influence how severe these events were perceived.