Robin Gransier

Temporary threshold shifts and recovery in a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) after octave-band noise at 4 kHz

Safety criteria for underwater sound produced during offshore pile driving are needed to protect marine mammals. A harbor porpoise was exposed to fatiguing noise at 18 sound pressure level (SPL) and duration combinations. Its temporary hearing threshold shift (TTS) and hearing recovery were quantified with a psychoacoustic technique. Octave-band white noise centered at 4 kHz was the fatiguing stimulus at three mean received SPLs (124, 136, and 148 dB re 1 μPa) and at six durations (7.5, 15, 30, 60, 120, and 240 min). Approximate received sound exposure levels (SELs) varied between 151 and 190 dB re 1 μPa(2) s. Hearing thresholds were determined for a narrow-band frequency-swept sine wave (3.9-4.1 kHz; 1 s) before exposure to the fatiguing noise, and at 1-4, 4-8, 8-12, 48, and 96 min after exposure. The lowest SEL (151 dB re 1 μPa(2) s) which caused a significant TTS(1-4) was due to exposure to an SPL of 124 dB re 1 μPa for 7.5 min. The maximum TTS(1-4), induced after a 240 min exposure to 148 dB re 1 μPa, was around 15 dB at a SEL of 190 dB re 1 μPa(2) s. Recovery time following TTS varied between 4 min and under 96 min, depending on the exposure level, duration, and the TTS induced.

Effect of level, duration, and inter-pulse interval of 1-2 kHz sonar signal exposures on harbor porpoise hearing.

Safety criteria for underwater low-frequency active sonar sounds produced during naval exercises are needed to protect harbor porpoise hearing. As a first step toward defining criteria, a porpoise was exposed to sequences consisting of series of 1-s, 1-2 kHz sonar down-sweeps without harmonics (as fatiguing noise) at various combinations of average received sound pressure levels (SPLs; 144-179 dB re 1 μPa), exposure durations (1.9-240 min), and duty cycles (5%-100%). Hearing thresholds were determined for a narrow-band frequency-swept sine wave centered at 1.5 kHz before exposure to the fatiguing noise, and at 1-4, 4-8, 8-12, 48, 96, 144, and 1400 min after exposure, to quantify temporary threshold shifts (TTSs) and recovery of hearing. Results show that the inter-pulse interval of the fatiguing noise is an important parameter in determining the magnitude of noise-induced TTS. For the reported range of exposure combinations (duration and SPL), the energy of the exposure (i.e., cumulative sound exposure level; SELcum) can be used to predict the induced TTS, if the inter-pulse interval is known. Exposures with equal SELcum but with different inter-pulse intervals do not result in the same induced TTS.

Hearing threshold shifts and recovery in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) after octave-band noise exposure at 4 kHz

Safety criteria for underwater sounds from offshore pile driving are needed to protect marine mammals. As a first step toward understanding effects of impulsive sounds, two harbor seals were exposed to octave-band white noise centered at 4 kHz at three mean received sound pressure levels (SPLs; 124, 136, and 148 dB re 1 μPa) at up to six durations (7.5, 15, 30, 60, 120, and 240 min); mean received sound exposure level (SEL) range was 166-190 dB re 1 μPa(2) s. Hearing thresholds were determined before and after exposure. Temporary hearing threshold shifts (TTS) and subsequent recovery were quantified as changes in hearing thresholds at 1-4, 4-8, 8-12, 48, and 96 min after noise exposure in seal 01, and at 12-16, 16-20, 20-24, 60, and 108 min after exposure in seal 02. Maximum TTS (1-4 min after 120 min exposure to 148 dB re 1 μPa; 187 dB SEL) was 10 dB. Recovery occurred within ~60 min. Statistically significant TTSs (>2.5 dB) began to occur at SELs of ~170 (136 SPL, 60 min) and 178 dB re 1 μPa(2) s (148 SPL, 15 min). However, SEL is not an optimal predictor of TTS for long duration, low SPL continuous noise, as duration and SPL play unequal roles in determining induced TTS.

Hearing frequency thresholds of a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) temporarily affected by a continuous 1.5 kHz tone

Harbor porpoises may suffer hearing loss when exposed to intense sounds. After exposure to a 1.5 kHz continuous tone without harmonics at a mean received sound pressure level of 154 dB re 1 μPa for 60 min (cumulative sound exposure level: 190 dB re 1 μPa(2) s), the temporary hearing threshold shift (TTS) of a porpoise was quantified at 1.5, 2, 4, 6.5, 8, 16, 32, 63, and 125 kHz with a psychoacoustic technique. Significant TTS only occurred at 1.5 and 2 kHz. Mean TTS (1-4 min after sound exposure stopped) was ~14 dB at 1.5 kHz and ~11 dB at 2 kHz, and recovery occurred within 96 min. Control hearing tests before and after a 60 min low ambient noise exposure showed that normal variation in TTS was limited (standard deviation: ± 1.0 dB). Ecological effects of TTS depend not only on the magnitude of the TTS, its duration (depending on the exposure duration), and the recovery time after the exposure stopped, but also on the hearing frequency affected by the fatiguing noise. The hearing thresholds of harbor porpoises for the frequencies of their echolocation signals are not affected by intense low frequency sounds, therefore these sounds are unlikely to affect foraging efficiency.

Comparative temporary threshold shifts in a harbor porpoise and harbor seal, and severe shift in a seal.

Anthropogenic noise may cause temporary hearing threshold shifts (TTSs) in marine mammals. Tests with identical methods show that harbor porpoises are more susceptible to TTS induced by octave-band white noise (OBN) centered around 4 kHz than harbor seals, although their unmasked (basic) hearing thresholds for that frequency are similar. A harbor seal was exposed for 1 h to an OBN with a very high sound pressure level (SPL), 22-30 dB above levels causing TTS onset. This elicited 44 dB TTS; hearing recovered within 4 days. Thus, for this signal and this single exposure, permanent threshold shift requires levels at least 22 dB above TTS onset levels. The severe TTS in the seal suggests that the critical level (above which TTS increases rapidly with increasing SPL) is between 150 and 160 dB re 1 μPa for a 60 min exposure to OBN centered at 4 kHz. In guidelines on TTS in marine mammals produced by policy makers in many countries, TTS is assumed to follow the equal energy hypothesis, so that when the sound exposure levels of fatiguing sounds are equal, the same TTS is predicted to be induced. However, like previous studies, the present study calls this model into question.

Hearing frequency thresholds of harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) temporarily affected by played back offshore pile driving sounds

Harbor porpoises may suffer hearing loss when exposed to intense sounds. After exposure to playbacks of broadband pile driving sounds for 60 min, the temporary hearing threshold shift (TTS) of a porpoise was quantified at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 63, and 125 kHz with a psychoacoustic technique. Details of the pile driving sounds were as follows: pulse duration 124 ms, rate 2760 strikes/h, inter-pulse interval 1.3 s, average received single strike unweighted sound exposure level (SEL) 146 dB re 1 μPa(2) s (cumulative SEL: 180 dB re 1 μPa(2) s). Statistically significant TTS only occurred at 4 and 8 kHz; mean TTS (1-4 min. after sound exposure stopped) was 2.3 dB at 4 kHz, and 3.6 dB at 8 kHz; recovery occurred within 48 min. This study shows that exposure to multiple impulsive sounds with most of their energy in the low frequencies can cause reduced hearing at higher frequencies in harbor porpoises. The porpoises hearing threshold for the frequency in the range of its echolocation signals was not affected by the pile driving playback sounds.

Frequency of greatest temporary hearing threshold shift in harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) depends on the noise level

Harbor porpoises may suffer hearing loss when they are exposed to high level sounds. After exposure for 60 min to a 6.5 kHz continuous tone at average received sound pressure levels (SPLav.re.) ranging from 118 to 154 dB re 1μPa, the temporary hearing threshold shifts (TTSs) of a harbor porpoise were quantified at the center frequency (6.5 kHz), at 0.5, 1.0, and 1.3 octaves above the center frequency (9.2, 13.0, and 16.0 kHz), and at a frequency assumed to be ecologically important for harbor porpoises (125 kHz, the center frequency of their echolocation signals) by means of a psychoacoustic technique. The hearing frequency at which the maximum TTS occurred depended on the SPLav.re. The higher the SPLav.re., the higher the TTS induced at frequencies higher than the exposure frequency; below 148 dB re 1 μPa, the maximum TTS was at 6.5 kHz, whereas above 148 dB re 1 μPa, the maximum TTS was at 9.2 kHz. The hearing threshold of the harbor porpoise for the center frequency of its echolocation signals (125 kHz) was not affected at the highest SPLav.re. to which the animal was exposed.

Hearing thresholds of a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) for playbacks of multiple pile driving strike sounds

Pile driving is presently the most common method used to attach wind turbines to the sea bed. To assess the impact of pile driving sounds on harbor porpoises, it is important to know at what distance these sounds can be detected. Using a psychophysical technique, a male porpoises hearing thresholds were obtained for series of five pile driving sounds (inter-pulse interval 1.2-1.3 s) recorded at 100 and 800 m from the pile driving site, and played back in a pool. The 50% detection threshold sound exposure levels (SELs) for the first sound of the series (no masking) were 72 (100 m) and 74 (800 m) dB re 1 μPa(2)s. Multiple sounds in succession (series) caused a ~5 dB decrease in hearing threshold; the mean 50% detection threshold SELs for any sound in the series were 68 (100 m) and 69 (800 m) dB re 1 μPa(2)s. Depending on the actual propagation conditions and background noise levels, the results suggest that pile driving sounds are audible to porpoises at least at tens of kilometers from pile driving sites.

Effects of exposure to intermittent and continuous 6-7 kHz sonar sweeps on harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) hearing

Safety criteria for mid-frequency naval sonar sounds are needed to protect harbor porpoise hearing. A porpoise was exposed to sequences of one-second 6-7 kHz sonar down-sweeps, with 10-200 sweeps in a sequence, at an average received sound pressure level (SPLav.re.) of 166 dB re 1 μPa, with duty cycles of 10% (intermittent sounds) and 100% (continuous). Behavioral hearing thresholds at 9.2 kHz were determined before and after exposure to the fatiguing noise, to quantify temporary hearing threshold shifts (TTS1-4 min) and recovery. Significant TTS1-4 min occurred after 10-25 sweeps when the duty cycle was 10% (cumulative sound exposure level, SELcum: ∼178 dB re 1 μPa(2)s). For the same SELcum, the TTS1-4 min was greater for exposures with 100% duty cycle. The difference in TTS between the two duty cycle exposures increased as the number of sweeps in the exposure sequences increased. Therefore, to predict TTS and permanent threshold shift, not only SELcum needs to be known, but also the duty cycle or equivalent sound pressure level (Leq). It appears that the injury criterion for non-pulses proposed by Southall, Bowles, Ellison, Finneran, Gentry, Greene, Kastak, Ketten, Miller, Nachtigall, Richardson, Thomas, and Tyack [(2007). Aquat. Mamm. 33, 411-521] for cetaceans echolocating at high frequency (SEL 215 dB re 1 μPa(2)s) is too high for the harbor porpoise.

The hearing threshold of a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) for impulsive sounds (L)

The distance at which harbor porpoises can hear underwater detonation sounds is unknown, but depends, among other factors, on the hearing threshold of the species for impulsive sounds. Therefore, the underwater hearing threshold of a young harbor porpoise for an impulsive sound, designed to mimic a detonation pulse, was quantified by using a psychophysical technique. The synthetic exponential pulse with a 5 ms time constant was produced and transmitted by an underwater projector in a pool. The resulting underwater sound, though modified by the response of the projection system and by the pool, exhibited the characteristic features of detonation sounds: A zero to peak sound pressure level of at least 30 dB (re 1 s(-1)) higher than the sound exposure level, and a short duration (34 ms). The animals 50% detection threshold for this impulsive sound occurred at a received unweighted broadband sound exposure level of 60 dB re 1 μPa(2)s. It is shown that the porpoises audiogram for short-duration tonal signals [Kastelein et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 128, 3211-3222 (2010)] can be used to estimate its hearing threshold for impulsive sounds.