Robin L. Nabi

Exploring the Framing Effects of Emotion Do Discrete Emotions Differentially Influence Information Accessibility, Information Seeking, and Policy Preference?

The persuasive effects of emotions have been the focus of burgeoning interest in recent years. Rather than considering how emotions function within traditional paradigms of attitude change, this research explores the possibility that emotions serve as frames for issues, privileging certain information in terms of accessibility and thus guiding subsequent decision making. This study’s results offer evidence that fear and anger can differentially affect information accessibility, desired information seeking, and policy preference, though these effects may be contingent on schema development. These findings support not only the relationship between emotions and frames but also the importance of the discrete emotion perspective in persuasive contexts.

All Joking Aside: A Serious Investigation into the Persuasive Effect of Funny Social Issue Messages

This research was designed to assess the effects of contemporary political humor on information processing and persuasion, focusing specifically on two competing processes: processing motivation/counterargument distraction and message discounting. In Study 1, 212 undergraduates read one of four monologues by political comedian Bill Maher. Correlations and path modeling suggested that, in general, humor associated with greater source liking, closer information processing, and reduced counterargument, but also with greater message discounting. In Study 2, 204 undergraduates read one of four versions of a message based on the comedy of Chris Rock, manipulated to be more or less funny and attributed to the comedian or not. Results largely replicated those from Study 1. In addition, the humorous messages promoted more discounting than the serious messages, though they were processed with comparable depth. Although no more likely to be persuasive in the short run, the comedic transcript evidenced a sleeper effect after one week. In sum, the data were consistent with the notion that humorous messages might be processed carefully (but not critically) yet simultaneously discounted as irrelevant to attitudinal judgments. Implications for humor research and the sleeper effect are discussed.

Emotional and Cognitive Predictors of the Enjoyment of Reality-Based and Fictional Television Programming: An Elaboration of the Uses and Gratifications Perspective

This article reports the results of two studies designed to compare predictors of enjoyment of reality-based and fictional television programming. In Study 1, 260 adults completed a survey of their cognitive and emotional reactions to either the fictional or reality-based programming that they generally watch. In Study 2, 502 adults completed a similar survey but with a particular reality-based or fictional program in mind. Results suggest first that though voyeurism (i.e., curiosity about others) appears to be a key distinguishing gratification between reality and fictional programming, it is not always a predictor of reality television enjoyment. Indeed, many predictors of enjoyment, like happiness, parasocial relationships, social comparison, self-awareness, negative outcome, and dramatic challenge, varied as much among types of reality programs as between reality and fiction. Of particular interest, three variables—learning, suspense, and transportation—had opposite effects on enjoyment, depending on their programming context. The implications of these findings, as well as the role of perceived realism and our ability to explain more variance in enjoyment of reality versus fictional programming, are addressed. Apart from its insight into the reality television phenomenon, this research helps to more clearly articulate the cognitive and emotional underpinnings of enjoyment and further offers a unique theoretical perspective on the connection between the uses and gratifications paradigm and the construct of enjoyment.

Anger, Fear, Uncertainty, and Attitudes: A Test of the Cognitive-Functional Model.

The cognitive-functional model of discrete negative emotions and attitude change (CFM; Nabi, 1999) attempts to bridge the theoretical gap between “emotional” and “rational” approaches to persuasion by focusing on how emotions motivate attention to and processing of persuasive messages. As a first test of the CFM, this study explored the effects of 2 emotions, anger and fear, and 2 levels of expectation of message reassurance, certainty and uncertainty, on attitudes toward domestic terrorism legislation. Results supported a main effect for emotion type, suggesting that anger promotes deeper information processing than fear, and a main effect for reassurance certainty level, with uncertainty promoting deeper information processing. The expected interaction between emotion type and reassurance expectation level was not found. Implications of these findings for the model and persuasion research generally are discussed.

Does Television Viewing Relate to Engagement in Protective Action Against Crime? A Cultivation Analysis From a Theory of Reasoned Action Perspective

As a theory of media effects, cultivation suggests that television viewing influences beliefs and opinions about the real world. As a model of social influence, the theory of reasoned action focuses on predicting behaviors based on salient beliefs and attitudes. This study attempts to elaborate cultivation theory by using a theory of reasoned action perspective to determine if heavy television viewing influences not only beliefs and attitudes about violence in society but also intentions to take and actual engagement in protective action. Findings indicated that amount of television viewing directly influenced prevalence estimates of violence in society as well as intentions to take protective measures and indirectly affected mean world attitude and protection behaviors through its effects on their preceding variables. Implications for conceptualization and measurement of cultivation variables as well as the process through which television impacts behavior are discussed.

The Case for Emphasizing Discrete Emotions in Communication Research

There are several noteworthy debates associated with the study of emotion. For example, which comes first*emotion or cognition? Or, even more basic, what feature most centrally defines emotion? Although undoubtedly conceptually important, the more pressing question for scholars within our discipline is: which approach to emotion is most useful for understanding communication-based phenomena*the discrete or the dimensional view? Here I argue that, although these two perspectives share some very basic root elements, we must look for the best match between the phenomena under consideration and the unique strengths of the theoretical paradigms applied to them. Given the complexity of communicationrelated processes and outcomes, the more complex orientation to the study of emotion*the discrete emotion perspective*is most useful as what little might be lost in parsimony is more than offset by the precision gained in prediction. In this essay, I will first define emotion and the two major approaches to its study. I will then argue that given that unique emotion states (generated by unique appraisal patterns) are the key motivator behind differences in human thought, word, and deed, it is most reasonable to adopt a discrete perspective to the extent those outcomes are of interest. I will then present evidence from several domains of literature to demonstrate the value of the discrete over the dimensional view in the study of communication-related issues.

Subjective Knowledge and Fear Appeal Effectiveness: Implications for Message Design

This research investigates the role of perceived health knowledge on the effectiveness of fear-based persuasive appeals. Undergraduates (N = 263) read a strong fear, weak fear, or efficacy-only message encouraging breast or testicular self-examination. As expected, results indicated that men high in subjective knowledge were less reactant and more persuaded by the efficacy-only message whereas those low in subjective knowledge did not evidence this pattern. Contrary to expectation, women high in subjective knowledge had comparable reactions to each of the 3 messages. Implications for fear appeal theory and message design are discussed.

Predicting Intentions Versus Predicting Behaviors: Domestic Violence Prevention From a Theory of Reasoned Action Perspective

A central assumption of many models of human behavior is that intention to perform a behavior is highly predictive of actual behavior. This article presents evidence that belies this notion. Based on a survey of 1250 Philadelphia adults, a clear and consistent pattern emerged suggesting that beliefs related to domestic violence correlate with intentions to act with respect to domestic violence but rarely correlate with reported actions (e.g., talking to the abused woman). Numerous methodological and substantive explanations for this finding are offered with emphasis placed on the complexity of the context in which an action to prevent a domestic violence incident occurs. We conclude by arguing that despite the small, insignificant relationships between beliefs and behaviors found, worthwhile aggregate effects on behavior might still exist, thus reaffirming the role of communication campaign efforts.

Comparing the effects of entertainment and educational television programming on risky sexual behavior.

Entertainment-education (E-E) may offer an effective way to reduce risky behavior by modeling healthy behaviors. Although there is some empirical evidence to support the effectiveness of the E-E strategy, much of this research has been conducted in countries with different media landscapes than that of the United States and controlled experiments in this context are rare. Moreover, empirical tests of the relative effectiveness of E-E messages and other message formats are needed. In this study, 437 undergraduates participated in a three-wave panel experiment in which they viewed one of three programs (E-E, education, or entertainment). Safer sex intentions and behaviors were measured several days before, immediately following, and 2 weeks after exposure. Results demonstrate that effects of exposure to this E-E program vary depending on gender and past experience with sexual intercourse. In particular, females and those who had not initiated sexual intercourse showed the strongest effects. Discussion of theoretical implications and suggestions for future research are provided.

Inspired by Hope, Motivated by Envy: Comparing the Effects of Discrete Emotions in the Process of Social Comparison to Media Figures

Despite considerable research and theorizing regarding the process of social comparison, limited attention has been given to the role of discrete emotions in this context, particularly as they may influence the behavioral responses resulting from comparison to similar others. In the context of cosmetic surgery makeover programs, we explore how discrete emotions may mediate the effects of social comparison on behavior and how different emotions, envy and hope in particular, may differentially relate to behavioral motivation. Based on the survey responses of 236 female students, results suggest that social comparison to media figures correlates with a range of emotional responses as well as with behavioral motivation for invasive cosmetic enhancements. Envy maintained a significantly greater association with behavioral motivation than hope or any other emotional response. Further, mediational analyses were consistent with the argument that envy, but not hope, mediates the social comparison–behavioral motivation relationship. The relationship between character identification and social comparison, as well as processes associated with downward social comparison, are also explored. This research helps illuminate the driving mechanism for social comparisons effects on behavior and has implications for better understanding how media exposure may stimulate this process.