Robin M. Kowalski

Impression management: A literature review and two-component model.

Impression management, the process by which people control the impressions others form of them, plays an important role in interpersonal behavior. This article presents a 2-component model within which the literature regarding impression management is reviewed. This model conceptualizes impression management as being composed of 2 discrete processes. The 1st involves impression motivation ― the degree to which people are motivated to control how others see them. The 2nd component involves impression construction. The 2-component model provides coherence to the literature in the area, address controversial issues, and supplies a framework for future research regarding impression management

COMPLAINTS AND COMPLAINING: FUNCTIONS, ANTECEDENTS, AND CONSEQUENCES

Although everyone complains at least occasionally, surprisingly little research attention has been devoted to the topic of complaining. In this review, complaints are defined as expressions of dissatisfaction, whether subjectively experienced or not, for the purpose of venting emotions or achieving intrapsychic goals, interpersonal goals, or both. A theoretical model of complaining is presented that examines the relationship between self-focus, the perceived utility of complaining, and complaining. In addition, this article examines variables related to peoples dissatisfaction and complaining thresholds (i.e., negative affect, locus of control, self-presentational concerns, age, and gender), functions of complaining, and intrapersonal and interpersonal consequences of complaining.

Aversive Interpersonal Behaviors

In 1993, James Redfield published the Celestine Prophecy, an intriguing book describing the nine insights of life as revealed in a fictitious Peruvian manuscript. As individuals uncover each of the insights in sequence, they learn that the physical world is a huge system of energy. However, because people do not know how to harvest that energy, they compete with other individuals for the energy that they can acquire directly from them. Thus, throughout history, human conflict has stemmed from competition for the energy that flows between individuals. By controlling another person, people can increase their own energy by “stealing” some of the other individual’s energy. The method that people use to gather another’s energy is referred to as a control drama and reflects patterns of behavior that were learned in childhood. Thus, some people control others by making them feel guilty. Others direct people by monopolizing conversations. Still others control people by ostracizing them and depriving them of valued interpersonal resources. So, aversive interpersonal behaviors, at least in part, reflect people’s control dramas or the methods that they invoke to gather energy from others (Redfield, 1993).

Deconstructing The Myth Of The Nonaggressive Woman: A Feminist Analysis

One of the most pervasive and undisputed gender stereotypes is that men are more aggressive than women. However, this stereotype has, until recently, led researchers to conclude that women are nonaggressive and, therefore, to ignore the topic of female aggression as a distinct phenomenon. The basis of the myth, factors supporting its maintenance, and theories of female aggression are examined. A feminist reinterpretation of aggression that views womens and mens aggressive behavior within social structural arrangements that create and sustain differential power relations is presented.

Traditional bullying as a potential warning sign of cyberbullying

Although traditional bullying and cyberbullying share features in common, they differ in important ways. For example, cyberbullying is often characterized by perceived anonymity and can occur any time of the day or night. Conversely, perpetrators of traditional bullying are known to the victim, and most traditional bullying occurs at school. Yet, some researchers have suggested that involvement in the two types of bullying may be related. However, little research has modeled the system of relationships among the perpetration and victimization of traditional bullying and cyberbullying. The present study uses path analysis to arrive at a suitable model of these relationships, and describes the gender differences in these relationships. Students (N = 4,531) in grades 6 through 12 completed a survey examining their involvement in traditional bullying and cyberbullying. Analysis proceeded by making fit comparisons among hypothesized path models. More frequent traditional bullying perpetration and victimization were associated with higher frequency of their electronic counterparts. However, the relationship between traditional perpetration and victimization was stronger for females than males as was the effect of traditional victimization on cyber-victimization. Implications for school practitioners are presented.

Behaving badly : aversive behaviors in interpersonal relationships

Most of us spend our lives craving positive, healthy connections with others, but relationships are often the source of many of lifes greatest frustrations. Behaving Badly takes a uniquely honest look at the dark side of relating with others. How can the loved one who raises your spirits one day be an insensitive jerk the next? Why is it that the closer people become, the greater the likelihood that they will offend, embarrass, annoy, and hurt one another? Some of the most commonly experienced aversive phenomenon are explored in this book, including teasing, swearing, gossiping, and betrayal. These aversive behaviors have profound implications for the process of social interaction, and this book fills a gap by gathering the most interesting research on this oft-overlooked area of study. Rich in research and vivid examples, the chapters of this volume explore these behaviors through the eyes of both victims and perpetrators, often revealing the hidden benefits of aversive behavior. Social psychologists, clinicians, therapists, and anyone interested in those aggravating elements of relationships should read this book.

Self-presentational concerns and social anxiety: The role of generalized impression expectancies

Abstract Two experiments examined the degree to which socially anxious peoples interpersonal concerns reflect doubts about their personal self-presentational efficacy versus a generalized belief that people tend to evaluate others unfavorably. In the first study, subjects imagined how another person would evaluate them after a brief glance, after a 5-min conversation, or after a prolonged interaction. Compared to subjects low in social anxiety, socially anxious subjects thought they would be evaluated more megatively in every condition. In a second study, subjects were asked how a perceiver would evaluate either them or another person after a very brief, short, or long interaction. As before, anxious subjects thought they would be judged less favorably than less anxious subjects regardless of the length of the interaction. Importantly, socially anxious subjects indicated that perceivers would evaluate other people just as negatively, whereas low anxiety subjects thought they personally would be evaluated more positively than most other people. The implications of these findings for the growing literature on adaptive self-illusions is discussed.

“I was Only Kidding!”: Victims’ and Perpetrators’ Perceptions of Teasing

Teasing is an interpersonal behavior that some people perceive to be fun and a matter of joking around and that other people view as cruel and a means of hurting someone’s feelings. These perspectives might reflect the views of perpetrators and victims, respectively. To examine this, 72 male and female participants wrote two narratives, one in which they described an incident when they were teased and another in which they described an event where they perpetrated the teasing. Victims and perpetrators formed very different impressions of the teasing event. Perpetrators perceived the event as more humorous and less damaging than did victims. However, they also reported feeling more guilt than did victims. Most of the incidents recounted by victims focused on physical appearance, followed by relationships and behavior. Perpetrator narratives focused primarily on behavior, followed closely by body parts and appearance. Implications of victim/perpetrator differences regarding teasing and the consequences of teasing are discussed.

Cyberbullying Via Social Media

Recent years have witnessed a surge of research on cyberbullying. In this article, three studies examined prevalence rates of cyberbullying among college-age students, venues through which cyberbullying occurs, with a particular focus on social media, and perceptions of cyberbullying as a function of features of the target (e.g., peer, celebrity, groups). Study 1 found texting and social media to be the most commonly used venues for cyberbullying victimization. Study 2 determined that features of the target of cyber aggressive comments influenced perceptions of cyberbullying. Online aggressive comments directed toward peers were perceived most negatively whereas those targeted toward random people known only online were evaluated least negatively. Using an innovative methodology for examining cyberbullying, Study 3 found that venue (e.g., Facebook, comments, forum posts) and features of the target influenced the nature of online exchanges. Implications for prevention and intervention are discussed.

Distinctions between general and personal courage

How courageous is an action? Perhaps it depends on the comparison group, with crucial differences between general courage, or actions that would be courageous for anyone, and personal courage, or actions that are courageous only for the particular actor. To explore these possible distinctions, 250 undergraduates (151 female) wrote about a time they acted courageously, then made multiple ratings of the action including personal and general courageousness. Actions high in general courage were taken with more confidence, less fear, and fewer personal limitations: actions high in personal courage were taken with more fear, despite greater difficulty. Both ratings and narrative data support this fundamental distinction, which may increase the precision of future courage research and have implications for treatment.