Robin S. Vealey

Advancements in competitive anxiety research: Use of the sport competition anxiety test and the competitive state anxiety inventory-2

Abstract The purpose of this paper was to briefly review the competitive anxiety research that has utilized the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) as measures of competitive trait anxity (A-trait) and multidimensional competitive state anxiety (A-state), respectively. An expanded model of competitive anxiety is presented which serves as the basis for the review of the literature. Specifically, the SCAT research reviewed includes the relationship of competitive A-trait to other intrapersonal factors, perception of threat, the prediction of state responses as well as motor performance and the prediction of performance outcomes or consequences. The CSAI-2 research reviewed includes the relationship of competitive A-state to other intrapersonal factors, interrelationships between CSAI-2 components, the anxiety-performance relationship, and evidence supporting the independence of the CSAI-2 components. Future directions for research using SCAT and the C...

Smocks and Jocks Outside the Box: The Paradigmatic Evolution of Sport and Exercise Psychology

The objective of this article is to describe the historical development of sport and exercise psychology, with a particular emphasis on the construction and evolution of the “box” through history. The box represents the dominant paradigm that serves as the model for research and application as it evolves through successive historical eras (Kuhn, 1962). Seven historical eras related to the development of sport and exercise psychology are discussed. Of particular interest for this review were individuals whose curiosity and motivation established the roots for the study of sport and exercise psychology, as well as the controversies and tensions in both kinesiology and psychology that shaped the fi eld. Suggestions for the future include a problem-based approach to scholarship and a cultural praxis version of sport and exercise psychology to enhance relevancy and social impact.

Mental Game Myths and Tips for Coaches and Athletes

What often seems intuitive and well-meaning as a mental game strategy may be ineffective or detrimental to athletes, based on the evolution of knowledge in sport psychology. This article describes three popular ideas about the mental game and identifies them as myths, based on experience and research. These myths are (1) mental training should focus on the “zone,” or the pursuit of peak performance, (2) confidence is required to perform well, and (3) attentional “triggers” are best to lock in optimal focus. Recent advances in sport mental training emphasize the importance of preparing responses to competitive challenges, and using specific focus strategies based on the athletes level of expertise. Practical tips and strategies are also provided to enhance mental skills in athletes and to find alternatives to traditional thinking about the mental game.

Fear of Failure in the Context of Competitive Sport: A Commentary

INTRODUCTION Allen Fox identified fear of failure as the key psychological culprit that interferes with athletes’ abilities to remain focused when competing in sport. I agree that fear of failure can be devastating to athletes for all the reasons that Dr. Fox suggests, as we have all witnessed (and even personally experienced) the severe performance decrements that can occur when this fear rears its ugly head (e.g., Greg Norman’s meltdown in the 1996 US Masters or Jana Novotna’s 1993 championship match choke at Wimbledon). However, I believe that fear of failure, as an inherent part of sport competition, can be harnessed and used as an important motivator for training and as a useful energy source (which requires some mental rewiring) during competition. My metaphor was intentional – fear of failure is a huge obstacle to overcome when it “rears its ugly head” – but systematic training of productive responses in pressure situations enables most athletes to manage this fear effectively. The “ugly head” is only revealed when athletes lack training and experience, or forsake their mental plans and focus strategies because they are not completely routinized or trusted. Peter Vidmar, U.S. Olympic gold medalist in gymnastics, describes his learned response to fear of failure:

What's in it for me? An intervention to increase physical activity among adolescents in physical education.

JOPERD • Volume 78 No. 1 • January 2007 A sk a physical educator to compare the physical activity levels of elementary children to high school adolescents, and she will likely explain that the difference is remarkable. Younger children are typically much more active throughout the day than older adolescents. In fact, research has shown that there is a decrease in the amount of physical activity among children as they age (Sallis, 1993). As a result, some adolescents are becoming unhealthy and overweight, which leads to even less motivation to participate in physical activity. The only physical activity or exercise that most adolescents are exposed to during the day is their physical education class in high school. When the physical education program is effective and adolescents are active, it is possible to observe changes in physical fi tness indicators, overall health, and academic performance in school (AAHPERD, 1999). The problem is that some states require students to enroll in physical education for only one semester, and when the class ends, the students typically stop their physical activity and all benefi ts are lost. Therefore, without the needed self-motivation, students discontinue their daily activity and their lifestyle becomes too sedentary. How can educators persuade their students to maintain an active lifestyle? In most cases, physical education teachers are not equipped with the knowledge of how to provide motivational interventions that encourage students to continue to be physically active after and outside of their classes. In the sport psychology literature, there are many types of motivational interventions that can easily be transferred from a sport context to an educational setting. In addition, numerous studies provide evidence that motivational interventions do work with adolescents (Carron, Hausenblas, & Estabrooks, 2003). Unfortunately, at the school level, physical education and sport psychology rarely come together for a common goal, such as maintaining the desire to be active and physically fi t. The purpose of this article is to present two intervention strategies that have been used in high school physical education classes to motivate students to be more physically active during and beyond their experience in class. Review of the physical activity literature suggests a need to identify critical psychosocial mediators of physical activity behavior change in adolescents (Lewis, Marcus, & Pate, 2002). Personal investment theory provides a useful conceptual framework to study the physical activity behavior of adolescents, because the meaning, or sub-jective experience, of physical activity plays a signifi cant role in determining activity choices and continued motivation to be active (Maehr & Braskamp, 1986). Using this theory as What’s in It for Me? An Intervention to Increase Physical Activity Among Adolescents in Physical Education

Examining multidimensional sport-confidence in athletes and non-athlete sport performers

ABSTRACT Sport-confidence is considered a critical success factor for sport performers at all levels. Researchers have suggested that sport-confidence is a multidimensional rather than a unidimensional construct, and the sport-confidence model identified three types of sport-confidence (i.e., physical skills and training, cognitive efficiency, and resilience) that are important for success in sport. However, such multidimensionality of sport-confidence and its measurement have not been fully examined. On a large sample of sport performers with varied skill levels and characteristics, the purpose of the present study was to examine the three-factor model of sport-confidence. We tested the measurement invariance of the Sport-Confidence Inventory across 512 athletes and 1170 non-athlete sport performers. Results from the multiple group model analysis showed that the three-factor model of sport-confidence fit better for the athlete sample than for the non-athlete sample. The results implicate that the three-factor model of sport-confidence model is suitable to athletes, though sport-confidence may appear more unidimensional for non-athletes. The use of the Sport-Confidence Inventory for non-athlete sport performers demands further consideration; however, the findings implicate that it could be a useful tool to assess sport-confidence of sport performers at any levels.

Psychometric properties and validation of the Polish adaptation of the Sources of Sport-Confidence Questionnaire (SSCQ-PL)

The aim of the study was to validate and adapt the Sources of Sport-Confidence Questionnaire (SSCQ-PL) for use in Poland. The original tool (SSCQ) was created by Robin Vealey (1998) and consists of 41 items grouped into 9 subscales that each describes individual sources of sport-confidence. This paper describes the phases of the adaptation process. A total of 353 Polish athletes participated in the study, including active sportsmen, amateurs and professionals. The results confirm satisfactory psychometric properties of the Polish adaptation. The reliability and discriminatory power of the items was high. However, the authors decided to exclude the Situational Favorableness scale, which significantly decreased the reliability of the Polish version of the questionnaire. The internal validity of SSCQ-PL was confirmed using a confirmatory factor analysis. The SSCQ-PL scales correlated with most of the Multidimensional Self-Esteem Inventory (MSEI) scales and with the Trait Sport-Confidence Inventory-PL (TSCI-PL) scales, which confirmed the criterion validity of the tool.

Choking in Sport: ACT on It!

The purpose of this article is to describe the phenomenon of choking in sport, and suggest a process approach to managing competitive pressure and choking (based on the sport, cognitive, and clinical psychology literature). Specific suggestions are provided for athletes to use before, during, and after competition. Athletes are encouraged to accept and acknowledge pressure and the feelings associated with choking, as opposed to attempting to avoid or get rid of these feelings. The strategy for athletes to use during competition is to ACT on it, or to follow the steps of Accept, Center, and Trust.