Rod Bond

Culture and Conformity: A Meta-Analysis of Studies Using Asch's (1952b, 1956) Line Judgment Task

A meta-analysis of conformity studies using an Asch-type line judgment task (1952b, 1956) was conducted to investigate whether the level of conformity has changed over time and whether it is related crogs-culturally to individualism-collectivism. The fiterature search produced 133 studies drawn from 17 countries. An analysis of U.S. studies found that conformity has declined since the 1950s. Results from 3 surveys were used to assess a countrys individualism-collectivism, and for each survey the measures were found to be significantly related to conformity. Collectivist countries tended to show higher levels of conformity than individualist countries. Conformity research must attend more to cultural variables and to their role in the processes involved in social influence. The view has long been held that conformity is to some extent a product of cultural conditions, and it is a stable feature of popular stereotypes that some national groups are conforming and submissive, whereas others are independent and self-assertive (e.g., Peabody, 1985 ). Likewise, the extent to which dissidence is tolerated in a society will vary at different points in its history, and several commentators have suggested that the relatively high levels of conformity found in experiments conducted in the early 1950s (notably Asch, 1952b, 1956) was in part a product of the McCarthy era (e.g., Larsen, 1974; Mann, 1980; Perrin & Spencer, 1981 ). Although Aschs ( 1952b, 1956) seminal research is often interpreted as demonstrating that conformity is fundamental to group processes (Friend, Rafferty, & Bramel, 1990), Asch was as much concerned with those factors that enabled individuals to resist group pressure, factors which he saw as rooted in a societys values and socialization practices. That we have found the tendency to conformity in our society so strong that reasonably intelligent and well-meaning young people are willing to call White Black is a matter of concern. It raises questions about our ways of education and about the values that guide our conduct. (Asch, 1955, p. 34)

How do mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction improve mental health and wellbeing? A systematic review and meta-analysis of mediation studies

Given the extensive evidence base for the efficacy of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), researchers have started to explore the mechanisms underlying their therapeutic effects on psychological outcomes, using methods of mediation analysis. No known studies have systematically reviewed and statistically integrated mediation studies in this field. The present study aimed to systematically review mediation studies in the literature on mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs), to identify potential psychological mechanisms underlying MBCT and MBSRs effects on psychological functioning and wellbeing, and evaluate the strength and consistency of evidence for each mechanism. For the identified mechanisms with sufficient evidence, quantitative synthesis using two-stage meta-analytic structural equation modelling (TSSEM) was used to examine whether these mechanisms mediate the impact of MBIs on clinical outcomes. This review identified strong, consistent evidence for cognitive and emotional reactivity, moderate and consistent evidence for mindfulness, rumination, and worry, and preliminary but insufficient evidence for self-compassion and psychological flexibility as mechanisms underlying MBIs. TSSEM demonstrated evidence for mindfulness, rumination and worry as significant mediators of the effects of MBIs on mental health outcomes. Most reviewed mediation studies have several key methodological shortcomings which preclude robust conclusions regarding mediation. However, they provide important groundwork on which future studies could build.

Group size and conformity

This paper reviews theory and research on the relationship between group size and conformity and presents a meta-analysis of 125 Asch-type conformity studies. It questions the assumption of a single function made in formal models of social influence and proposes instead that the function will vary depending on which social influence process predominates. It is argued that normative influence is likely to be stronger when participants make public responses and are face-to-face with the majority, whereas informational influence is likely to be stronger when participants make private responses and communicate with the majority indirectly. The meta-analysis finds that the relationship differs according to whether public or private responses are obtained and whether an Asch or Crutchfield paradigm is employed. Future research needs to identify how the relationship varies depending on different social influence processes elicited by features of the task and setting.

Personality, cognition, and university students' examination performance

A prospective study explored the relationship between personality traits (as defined by the five factor model), type of motivation (as defined by self‐determination theory), and goal‐specific cognitions (including those specified by the theory of planned behaviour) as antecedents of degree performance amongst undergraduate students. A sample of 125 students completed a questionnaire two to three months before their final examinations. Structural equation modelling was used to explore relationships. Intention and perceived behavioural control explained 32% of the variance in final degree marks, with intention being the strongest predictor. Controlling for theory of planned behaviour variables, anticipated regret, good‐student identity, controlled extrinsic motivation, Conscientiousness, and Openness had direct significant effects on intention. In total, 65% of the variance in intention was explained. The resultant model illustrates how personality traits may affect examination performance by means of mediators such as intention, anticipated regret, student identity, and autonomous intrinsic motivation. Copyright

Structured Type 1 Diabetes Education Delivered Within Routine Care Impact on glycemic control and diabetes-specific quality of life

OBJECTIVE To determine whether improvements in glycemic control and diabetes-specific quality of life (QoL) scores reported in research studies for the type 1 diabetes structured education program Dose Adjustment For Normal Eating (DAFNE) are also found when the intervention is delivered within routine U.K. health care. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Before and after evaluation of DAFNE to assess impact on glycemic control and QoL among 262 adults with type 1 diabetes. RESULTS There were significant improvements in HbA1c from baseline to 6 and 12 months (from 9.1 to 8.6 and 8.8%, respectively) in a subgroup with suboptimal control. QoL was significantly improved by 3 months and maintained at both follow-up points. CONCLUSIONS Longer-term improved glycemic control and QoL is achievable among adults with type 1 diabetes through delivery of structured education in routine care, albeit with smaller effect sizes than reported in trials.

The aetiology of post-traumatic stress following childbirth: a meta-analysis and theoretical framework

There is evidence that 3.17% of women report post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after childbirth. This meta-analysis synthesizes research on vulnerability and risk factors for birth-related PTSD and refines a diathesis-stress model of its aetiology. Systematic searches were carried out on PsycINFO, PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science using PTSD terms crossed with childbirth terms. Studies were included if they reported primary research that examined factors associated with birth-related PTSD measured at least 1 month after birth. In all, 50 studies (n = 21 429) from 15 countries fulfilled inclusion criteria. Pre-birth vulnerability factors most strongly associated with PTSD were depression in pregnancy (r = 0.51), fear of childbirth (r = 0.41), poor health or complications in pregnancy (r = 0.38), and a history of PTSD (r = 0.39) and counselling for pregnancy or birth (r = 0.32). Risk factors in birth most strongly associated with PTSD were negative subjective birth experiences (r = 0.59), having an operative birth (assisted vaginal or caesarean, r = 0.48), lack of support (r = -0.38) and dissociation (r = 0.32). After birth, PTSD was associated with poor coping and stress (r = 0.30), and was highly co-morbid with depression (r = 0.60). Moderator analyses showed that the effect of poor health or complications in pregnancy was more apparent in high-risk samples. The results of this meta-analysis are used to update a diathesis-stress model of the aetiology of postpartum PTSD and can be used to inform screening, prevention and intervention in maternity care.

Combining self-affirmation with implementation intentions to promote fruit and vegetable consumption

OBJECTIVE The current study tested whether self-affirmation in the context of a threatening health message helps promote a health behavior (fruit and vegetable consumption) over a 3-month period, and whether adding a manipulation to support the translation of intentions into behavior (an implementation intentions induction) enhances the impact of self-affirmation. METHODS Participants (N = 332, 71% women) reported their baseline consumption and were randomly assigned to condition in a 2 (self-affirmation: yes, no) × 2 (implementation intentions: formed, not formed) between-subjects factorial design. They completed a self-affirmation/control task and then read a health communication advising eating at least 5 portions of fruit and vegetables daily. Next participants reported intentions for behavior change, after which they formed/did not form relevant implementation intentions. Consumption was measured again 7 days and 3 months postintervention. RESULTS Self-affirmed (vs. nonaffirmed) participants reported eating more fruit and vegetables at both follow-ups. Forming (vs. not forming) implementation intentions was also beneficial for consumption. At 7 days, there was also a significant self-affirmation × implementation intentions interaction: consumption was highest when self-affirmed participants also formed implementation intentions. CONCLUSIONS The present study offers new evidence concerning the impact and durability of self-affirmation on health behaviors and the role of implementation intentions in enhancing the impact of self-affirmation.

Effective approaches to persuading pregnant women to quit smoking: A meta-analysis of intervention evaluation studies.

OBJECTIVES The study aimed to: (1) assess the effectiveness of prenatal smoking cessation interventions, (2) clarify whether the psychological changes targeted by interventions are related to their effectiveness, (3) identify specific intervention components associated with greater effectiveness, and (4) establish whether aspects of evaluation methodology are associated with a greater effectiveness. DESIGN Differences in proportions of women quitting and odds ratios were calculated for the intervention and control groups. Interventions were categorized in relation to the main intervention target (i.e. cognitive preparation versus increased threat perception), use of follow-up contact, use of individual cessation counselling and other characteristics. Methodological approaches to evaluation were also categorized. METHODS A systematic literature review generated 36 controlled evaluations, including one unpublished study. A meta-analysis was used to relate study classifications to effectiveness. This involved univariate analyses and a multivariate model of the relationship between observed univariate effects. RESULTS A weighted mean odds ratio of 1.93 indicated a good overall effectiveness. Cognitive preparation interventions achieved higher quit rates (6.5%) compared to interventions focusing on threat perception (2.2%). However, this effect was not maintained in the multivariate analysis. CONCLUSION Interventions should employ follow-up, but further research is required to assess the impact of one-to-one counselling. Clarification of the psychological change processes underlying the observed effectiveness of these interventions is required. Future research should seek to identify the active ingredients and cognitive mediators of successful interventions.

Linguistic and Psychometric Validation of the Diabetes-Specific Quality-of-Life Scale in U.K. English for Adults With Type 1 Diabetes

OBJECTIVE To develop a linguistically and psychometrically validated U.K. English (U.K./Ireland) version of the Diabetes-Specific Quality-of-Life Scale (DSQOLS) for adults with type 1 diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS We conducted independent forward and backward translation of the validated German DSQOLS. An iterative interview study with health professionals (n = 3) and adults with type 1 diabetes (n = 8) established linguistic validity. The DSQOLS was included in three Dose Adjustment for Normal Eating (DAFNE) studies (total N = 1,071). Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was undertaken to examine questionnaire structure. Concurrent and discriminant validity, internal consistency, and reliability were assessed. RESULTS EFA indicated a six-factor structure for the DSQOLS (social aspects, fear of hypoglycemia, dietary restrictions, physical complaints, anxiety about the future, and daily hassles). High internal consistency reliability was found for these factors and the weighted treatment satisfaction scale (α = 0.85–0.94). All subscales were moderately, positively correlated with the Audit of Diabetes-Dependent Quality-of-Life (ADDQoL) measure, demonstrating evidence of concurrent validity. Lower DSQOLS subscale scores [indicating impaired quality of life (QoL)] were associated with the presence of diabetes-related complications. CONCLUSIONS The DSQOLS captures the impact of detailed aspects of modern type 1 diabetes management (e.g., carbohydrate counting and flexible insulin dose adjustment) that are now routine in many parts of the U.K. and Ireland. The U.K. English version of the DSQOLS offers a valuable tool for assessing the impact of treatment approaches on QoL in adults with type 1 diabetes.

Changes in Magistrates’ Attitudes During the First Year on the Bench

During the last few years there has been a revival of interest in the operation of magistrates’ courts and in the composition of the bench, much of it critical in tone. A good deal of concern has, for example, been expressed in the press and elsewhere about apparent discrepancies in sentencing practice between benches in different parts of the country (e.g. Hood & Sparks, 1970, pp. 141–51), and more recently the magistracy and the operation of the courts has come under attack from other directions. One important source of attack is from lawyers themselves, some of whom have spoken critically of what they feel is the excessively formal and legalistic nature of proceedings within the magistrates’ courts, in which the defendant is apparently disadvantaged (e.g. King, 1971, or Release Lawyers Group, 1973). A similar line of attack has been pursued by some sociologists whose analysis of the ‘ritual’ of the courts from a dramaturgical viewpoint emphasises the ‘gamesmanship’ nature of the proceedings. Here the defendant is seen as being cast in a passive and largely non-participatory role while the coalitions between other actors in the proceedings, and their defence of the formal and informal norms of court procedure, serve to imprison him within this role (e.g. Blumberg, 1967, and Carlen, 1976). As the decision makers within this system, it is inevitable that attention should be focussed on magistrates themselves.