Rodel D. Lasco

Management into the Development Strategies of Urbanizing Regions in Asia: Implications of Urban Function, Form, and Role

The way urbanization unfolds over the next few decades in the developing countries of Asia will have profound implications for sustainability. One of the more important opportunities is to guide urbanization along pathways that begin to uncouple these gains in well‐being from rising levels of energy use. Increasing energy use for transport, construction, climate control in houses and offices, and industrial processes is often accompanied by increasing levels of atmospheric emissions that impact human health, ecosystem functions, and the climate system. Agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry alter carbon stocks and fluxes as carbon dioxide, methane, and black carbon. In this article we explore how carbon management could be integrated into the development strategies of cities and urbanizing regions. In particular, we explore how changes in urban form, functions, and roles might alter the timing, aggregation, spatial distribution, and composition of carbon emissions. Our emphasis is on identifying system linkages and points of leverage. The study draws primarily on emission inventories and regional development histories carried out in the regions around the cities of Manila, Jakarta, Ho Chi Minh City, New Delhi, and Chiang Mai. We find that how urban functions, such as mobility, shelter, and food, are provided has major implications for carbon emissions, and that each function is influenced by urban form and role in distinct ways. Our case studies highlight the need for major “U‐turns” in urban policy.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) storage and sequestration of land cover in the Leyte Geothermal Reservation

This study estimated the existing stored carbon (C) and rate of sequestration by vegetation that can potentially serve as a sink for the carbon dioxide emitted from eight geothermal plants in Leyte Geothermal Reservation, Philippines. For the 20,438 ha watershed in the vicinity of the power project, the total C storage is 3.84 Mt C (14.10 Mt CO2) while C sequestration based on biomass change was 47.35 kt C (173.77 kt CO2). Relative to power plant emission, the C stored in the reserve is equivalent to more than 22 years of CO2 emission. Annual C sequestration is 27% of CO2 emission per year. For the next 25 years, two scenarios were projected. Under Scenario I (“Business as Usual”), the forest reserve will be able to store and sequester more than 32 years of CO2 emission from the power plants. Under Scenario II (“Accelerated Reforestation”), the reserve will be able to store and sequester about 34 years of CO2 emission.

Smallholder Tree Growing for Rural Development and Environmental Services

This paper proposes a way to classify PES projects based on how environmental service payments are justified and determined. Using the IPCC1 approach as a model, we recommend the use of the tier system to classify PES projects. The three tiers are summarized below: • Tier 1: Payments based on established ecological principles and local knowledge • Tier 2: In addition to the above, payments based on simulation modeling and limited site information • Tier 3: In addition to above, payments based on site-specific quantitative measurements of environmental services We illustrate this with case studies from existing PES projects in the Philippines. We then presented a decision tree to determine how the tier system can be used.

Future Challenge: A Paradigm Shift in the Forestry Sector

This chapter re-visits the facts and figures of previous chapters, augmenting the discussion with other relevant literature. It reviews trends in regional defor- estation, human population growth, and demands for forest (tree) products; and provides an overview of common tree-based landuse and management systems and their potential contribution to expand the regional forest base and generate forest products and services. Emphasis is placed on the contribution of smallholder tree- based (agroforestry) systems, given their additional function of supporting rural livelihoods of the potential of smallholder agroforestry systems to contribute to sustainable forest management and rural livelihoods are identified and discussed. Enabling conditions, institutional and policy support, and market oriented strate- gies are all discussed as means to strengthen the development and productivity of smallholder agroforestry systems. Discussions on those topics are well supported with citations and lessons learned emphasizing the experience from the Philippines. The main message of the chapter is twofold: (1) a paradigm shift in the forest sector is required to recognize the contribution and importance of smallholder systems to achieve sustainable forest management objectives; and (2) there is a need to adopt more holistic and sustainable strategies to support and strengthen institutions and smallholder system development, including linkages with the market.

Mainstreaming adaptation in developing countries: The case of the Philippines

The Philippines, as an archipelago and a developing country, is very vulnerable to climate change. Current efforts to address the impacts of climate change exist but may not be sufficient. The first part of this paper reviews current knowledge on mainstreaming climate change adaptation into development. It then assesses how far climate change has been mainstreamed into key development plans and programmes in the Philippines. Interviews with key informants were also conducted. The results show that there is no mainstreaming in the Philippines. All the major development plans and policies reviewed did not contain any reference to climate change adaptation. Interviews with key stakeholders reveal a similar trend. The main reason preventing mainstreaming are that national priorities are biased towards concerns deemed more pressing, and that there is a pervasive lack of awareness about the impacts of climate change on sustainable development. However, there are massive investments in infrastructure projects designed to adapt to weather-related hazards. Projects such as these could provide an entry point for integrating climate change adaptation into development plans and policy in the Philippines.

Environmental impacts of community-based forest management in the Philippines

Community-based forest management (CBFM) is a major strategy in managing forest lands in the Philippines. Forest and land management activities implemented in CBFM project sites include management of tropical forests (enrichment planting, timber stand improvement or TSI and limited harvesting), rehabilitation of degraded lands (reforestation, assisted natural regeneration (ANR)) and agroforestry. The environmental effects of CBFM and its technologies are largely positive. CBFM has led to the conservation of natural forests and the associated biodiversity. The planting of trees in farms and landscapes has led to soil and water conservation, carbon sequestration and biomass production.

Potential of Community-Based Forest Management to Mitigate Climate Change in the Philippines

Community-based forest management (CBFM) is the principal strategy in managing inhabited ‘forest land’ in the Philippines. It involves the participation of local communities in various forestry activities to achieve sustainable forestry, advance social justice and improve socioeconomic welfare, and promote a stable and healthy environment. This paper analyses the potential benefits of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites to mitigate climate change. The incorporation of trees in farms and landscapes has led to enhanced carbon storage and sequestration. Half a million hectares of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites in the Philippines are estimated to store 25 MtC while sequestering 2.7 MtC annually. Lessons are drawn from three carbon sequestration projects under development using CBFM as the main approach. Income from carbon credits is not sufficient to recover the cost of tree planting. The transaction costs of forestry CDM projects are substantial and could prove to be the greatest barrier to project fruition. Government institutions must find ways to encourage project developers by simplifying rules and regulations for forestry carbon projects. Forest definition must be assessed. Project developers and the government could also explore the voluntary carbon market which is more flexible than the CDM market. Policy and technical studies must be conducted to ascertain the potential of the REDD for CBFM sites in the country.

Rewarding Upland People for Forest Conservation: Experience and Lessons Learned from Case Studies in the Philippines

The Rewarding Upland Poor for Environmental Services They Provide (RUPES) is a program operating on its third year in the Philippines. With the dual goals of conserving the environment while alleviating the poor living conditions of the upland people, the program together with its partners has been testing and developing environmental service reward (ESR) mechanisms in various parts of the country. These include mechanisms on carbon sequestration, watershed and biodiversity protection, and landscape beauty in (a) Baticulan, Negros Occidental; (b) Sibuyan, Romblon; (c) Bakun, Benguet; and (d) Kalahan, Nueva Vizcaya. All of these cases are highly dependent on their existing forests and interested in how environmental services (ES) will be rewarded. In this article we describe the various ESR and linked mechanisms in place in a number of sites ranging from mandatory to propoor schemes. A tool such as rapid hydrological assessment (RHA) is developed and being used to convey the different information from various key stakeholders into one negotiation support system. At the same time, interventions such as capacity building of the upland ES providers are provided to equip them to negotiate with the potential buyers. Findings, challenges, and problems encountered in securing environmental service rewards are also presented.

Examining how long fallow swidden systems impact upon livelihood and ecosystem services outcomes compared with alternative land-uses in the uplands of Southeast Asia

Swidden agriculture or shifting cultivation has been practised in the uplands of Southeast Asia for centuries and is estimated to support up to 500 million people – most of whom are poor, natural resource reliant uplanders. Recently, however, dramatic land-use transformations have generated social, economic and ecological impacts that have affected the extent, practice and outcomes of swidden in the region. While certain socio-ecological trends are clear, how these broader land-use changes impact upon local livelihoods and ecosystem services remains uncertain. This systematic review protocol therefore proposes a methodological approach to analysing the evidence on the range of possible outcomes such land-use changes have on swidden and associated livelihood and ecosystem services over time and space.

Lessons From Early REDD

There is growing interest globally in REDD+ initiatives to help mitigate climate change; the Philippines is no exception. In this paper, we review early REDD+ project experiences in the country. The guiding document for REDD+ in the Philippines is the National REDD+ Strategy (PNRPS) which was prepared by a multisectoral group of authors. There are five REDD+ projects that are underway. The critical factors emerging from these early REDD+ actions are the following: external support, local participation, free prior and informed consent, capacity building, sustainability, national laws and policies, biodiversity conservation, and use of safeguards. The pioneering projects reviewed here as well as the emerging lessons from them will hopefully provide a firmer basis for future REDD+ actions in the country.