Rodney J. Keenan

Current status and future prospects for carbon forestry in Australia

Summary Carbon forestry is part of a suite of land-based activities that can be used to mitigate carbon emissions, and also provide a range of other environmental co-benefits. Components are included in the Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011. There is large divergence in Australian estimates of the areas of land that may be used for carbon forests and there has been a vigorous public debate about carbon forestry, partly based on concerns about displacement of food-producing land. We identify four distinct afforestation or reforestation (AR) activities that involve carbon mitigation and suggest a terminology based on these. These are (1) ‘plantations’ that also produce timber and wood products, (2) ‘carbon-focused’ sinks, (3) ‘environmental’ or natural resource management plantings and (4) ‘bioenergy’ plantings for use either as a feedstock for stationary energy production or transport fuels. After accounting for AR projects established for other purposes (e.g. timber and pulpwood), we estimate that the current area of carbon forests in Australia is 65000 ha. Despite the national Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act 2000 and its 2010 amendments there are few extant biomass projects. However this may change with the development of new technologies and the imposition of a carbon price on electricity production. The reasons for the gulf between actual and potential carbon AR activity are proposed to include (1) the absence of a formal carbon compliance scheme, (2) challenges in managing carbon through an entire product cycle, (3) the degree of understanding of carbon forestry by financiers, (4) landholder preference, (5) technical barriers and (6) regulatory uncertainty. We suggest an extension of the National Plantation Inventory from traditional plantations to carbon forestry, so that future policy can be developed on the basis of good-quality underpinning information that can be disaggregated to analyse trends in AR for different purposes. To encourage innovation in the sector, we also suggest either the extension or establishment of research and development funding arrangements, similar to those already existing for other rural industries.

Australian forest plantations: an overview of industry, environmental and community issues and benefits

Summary Australia has over 1.5 million ha of plantation forests. Governments and industry share a goal of doubling this area by 2020, with most new plantations to be established on previously- cleared agricultural land. Plantations currently supply over half of the raw material required by the forest products industry and also provide a range of environmental and social services. The ownership and management structure of Australian forest plantations and plantation-based forest industries has changed considerably over the past decade, and plantation growing, processing and marketing sectors are becoming increasingly globalised. This paper reviews the major forces driving development of forest plantations in Australia and the key policy and management issues to be considered if plantations are to meet varied expectations of the Australian community. Our assessment is based on papers and discussion at the ‘Prospects for Australian Forest Plantations 2002’ conference. The wide-ranging papers to the conference considered opportunities for Australias forest plantations and plantation-based industries in changing global wood markets. They discussed alternative and emerging markets for wood and other plantation products and environmental services, the potential for plantations to provide environmental benefits such as salinity mitigation and biodiversity conservation, effects of plantations on water yield and quality, and the effects of plantation development on rural and regional communities. The role of plantations in providing a broader range of environmental and social benefits emerged as a major focus of discussion. Lessons learned from Australias experience with plantation development are relevant in a wider global context where plantations will be expected to supply products for, and benefits to, society that historically have been supplied by native forest.

Deforestation and forest degradation in Papua New Guinea

Abstract• The Government of Papua New Guinea (PNG) has played a prominent part in recent negotiations for “rainforest nations” to be compensated for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation or forest degradation (DFD).• A new report “The State of the Forests of Papua New Guinea” claims that rates of DFD in PNG are much higher than have previously reported. It suggests more than half of PNG’s remaining forests will have disappeared or be damaged beyond recovery by 2021.• We argue that this claim is incorrect. The report overestimates the area of intact primary forest in 1972 and the impact of traditional land use practices on forest cover. Much of what the RSLUP report considers as deforestation is part of a cycle of traditional clearance for farming, fallow and regrowth that has been occurring for hundreds of years.• The assumption that areas impacted by harvesting or shifting cultivation will inevitably degrade and become non-forest is also not supported by observation of cutover forest in PNG. A considerable proportion of cutover forest areas will recover carbon stocks after harvesting.• It is argued that traditional land use practices and forest recovery processes need to be considered in assessing greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and degradation in countries with complex land use histories such as PNG.Résumé• Le Gouvernement de Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée (PNG) a joué un rôle important dans les récentes négociations pour que « les pays à forêt tropicale humide » soient indemnisés pour la réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre provenant de la déforestation ou la dégradation des forêts (DFD).• Un nouveau rapport « L’État des forêts de Papouasie-Nouvelle Guinée » affirme que les taux de DFD en PNG sont nettement plus élevés que précédemment signalés. Il suggère que plus de la moitié des forêts de PNG auront disparu ou seront endommagées au-delà de la récupération d’ici 2021.• Nous sommes d’avis que cette affirmation est erronée. Le rapport surestime la surface de la forêt primaire intacte, en 1972, et l’impact des pratiques traditionnelles d’utilisation des terres sur le couvert forestier. Une partie importante de ce que le rapport RSLUP considère comme de la déforestation fait partie d’un cycle traditionnel de dégagement pour l’agriculture, la jachère et la repousse ce qui s’est produit pendant des centaines d’années.• L’hypothèse que les zones touchées par l’exploitation forestière ou la culture itinérante vont inévitablement se dégrader et ne pas devenir de la forêt n’est pas non plus soutenue par l’observation des déboisement en PNG. Une proportion considérable des zones forestières déboisées récupérera des stocks de carbone après la récolte.• Il est fait valoir que l’utilisation traditionnelle des terres et les processus de régénération forestières doivent être pris en considération dans l’évaluation des émissions de gaz à effet de serre résultant du déboisement et des dégradations dans les pays ayant une histoire complexe de l’utilisation des terres comme la Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée.

Measuring and managing ecosystem goods and services in changing landscapes: a south-east Australian perspective

This paper reviews approaches to measuring and managing the multiple ecosystem goods and services (ESS) provided by production landscapes. A synthesis of these approaches was used to analyse changes in supply of ESS in heavily cleared and fragmented production landscapes in south-east Australia. This included analysis of spatial and temporal trade-offs and synergies among multiple ESS. Spatially explicit, up-to-date and reliable information can be used to assess ESS supplied from different types of land uses and land cover and from different parts of a landscape. This can support effective management and payment systems for ESS in production landscapes.

Using plant functional attributes to quantify site productivity and growth patterns in mixed forests

Abstract Forest growth models form one of several important prerequisites for sustainable management. The complexity of tropical moist forest means that there is often little objective information to classify sites and species for growth modelling and yield prediction. Classification based on observable morphological characteristics may be a useful surrogate for, or supplement to, other alternatives. This study investigated the utility of plant functional attributes (PFAs) for site and species classification. PFAs describe a plant in terms of its photosynthetic and vascular support system, and the sum of individual PFAs for all species on a plot provides an efficient summary of vegetation features at the site. Preliminary observations suggested that the PFA summary may also indicate site productivity, and that specific PFAs may be used to group species for modelling growth and yield. Data from 17 permanent plots in the tropical rainforests of North Queensland were used to test these preliminary observations. Standard PFA proformas were completed for each plot in January 1995, and the relationships between the PFAs, site productivity and specific growth patterns were examined using discriminant analysis, linear regression and standard statistical tests. Results indicate that mean leaf size, and the incidence of species with vertical leaf inclination (more than 30° above horizontal) are significantly correlated with site productivity. Of the PFAs assessed, five elements appear to offer a useful basis for grouping species for modelling: leaf size and inclination, a furcation index (i.e. relative height to first fork or break in the main stem), and the presence of lenticels and chlorophyllous tissue on the main stem. The restricted nature of our database limits comment on the general utility of the method, but results suggest that further work on PFAs is warranted.

Effects of clearcutting and soil mixing on soil properties and understorey biomass in western red cedar and western hemlock forests on northern Vancouver Island, Canada

Abstract On northern Vancouver Island in British Columbia it has been hypothesised that the cultivation effect of repeated windthrow is the cause of the higher nutrient availability in windstorm-derived, natural second-growth stands of western hemlock and amabilis fir (the HA type), compared with adjacent old-growth stands of western red cedar with a smaller component of hemlock, and a dense understorey of the ericaceous shrub, salal (the CH type). In 1988 an experiment was established in a clearcut area containing examples of these two forest types. The experiment was designed to simulate the effects of a broadscale windthrow by mixing mineral and organic horizons using a large rake attached to an excavator. In this study, a range of soil physical and chemical properties, and the biomass of understorey plants, were measured 4.5 years after treatment in uncut, clearcut, and clearcut and mixed plots of the two types. In the HA type, clearcutting and soil mixing decreased surface organic matter and moisture content, and increased the rate of decomposition of cellulose. It had little effect on the rate of microbial activity measured using CO 2 evolved in laboratory incubation, or N and P measured after KCl extraction, anaerobic incubation, or using ion-exchange resin bags in situ. In the CH type, the treatment decreased mineralisable N and phosphate-P held on resin bags, and the rates of cellulose decomposition and CO 2 evolution. Mixing markedly decreased the cover of salal compared with both the clearcut only and the uncut treatment. The anticipated benefits of mixing and soil disturbance (increased soil nutrient availability brought about by the mixing of mineral and organic horizons) have not occurred. This was probably because the mixing treatment brought humus material from deeper in the soil profile to the surface. Decomposition of this material is limited more by its poorer quality for decomposers (lower N concentration, and possibly higher tannins) than by soil microclimate.

Estimating tree crown dimensions using digital analysis of vertical photographs

The aim of this study was to develop a relatively rapid, simple and repeatable method to characterize the crown architecture of Queensland maple (Flindersia brayleyana F. Muell.) by vertical hemispherical photography. Calibration scales were developed to provide horizontal planes of measurement at heights from 15 to 40 m above the camera. Hemispherical images of tree crowns were merged with the specific calibration scale appropriate for the mid-height of the crown in order to adjust for image distortion during measurement. Merged images were analyzed by three procedures to yield measurements of crown diameter and projected area. The most precise measurement of projected crown dimensions was assumed to be provided by a complete analysis of a digital image of the crown, after removal of the trunk image. Crown diameters estimated by tape measurements on the ground were relatively imprecise (R-2 = 0.54), Crowns classified as symmetrical were described much more precisely (R-2 = 0.72) than those classified as asymmetrical (R-2 = 0.37). The precision of estimates of crown dimensions by tape did not alter significantly over the range of crown sizes sampled (2-10 m diameter in trees 15-40 m tall). This novel image analysis method can yield relatively precise and accurate measurements on the relatively shallow crowns of tall trees, often found in rainforests, regardless of the degree of asymmetry in crown shapes. However, the method is slower to apply than conventional tape techniques and additional equipment is required. The principal advantage of the photographic technique is the opportunity for precise measurements of changes in crown size and foliage projected area over time

Climate Change Law in an Era of Multi-Level Governance

As international negotiations struggle to deliver timely, binding commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to safe levels, the environmental legal community has begun to contemplate the scope for climate governance ‘beyond’ the international climate change regime. Many see merit in a more decentralized, disaggregated approach, operating across multiple governance levels. This article examines the development of climate change law in an era of multi-level governance. It analyzes several case studies of current manifestations of multi-level governance in climate change law, including: the fragmented global emissions trading system; developing arrangements governing forests and land-based sinks; the growth of climate litigation establishing transnational liability principles; efforts to ensure adaptation to unavoidable climate change; and the emergence in federal systems of a decentralized approach to climate change regulation. The article concludes by considering whether the emerging multi-level system of climate governance is adequate to meet broader international goals of climate change mitigation and adaptation.

Forest and Plantation Development in Laos: History, Development and Impact for Rural Communities

SUMMARY This paper presents a historical review and overview of the Lao forest sector. Previous research and forestry related policy documents of Laos indicate that forest management has evolved through six stages. Initially, natural forests were used by local people for basic needs. Little was destroyed or degraded. The second stage was greatly influenced by French colonisation. The third was a period when natural forests made major contributions to national economic growth, when natural forests were increasingly and widely harvested. Remaining phases involved growing criticism of Lao forest management practices from international organisations and the Laos National Assembly. Recently, private investment in tree plantations has increased. Overall, ineffective policies and inefficient institutional agencies have seriously constrained Lao forest management. Policy instruments such as concessions to plantation development need to be modified and balanced by the promotion of outgrower schemes. Plantation investments should be encouraged to follow international standards, guidelines and codes of practice.

Private native forests in Australia: What did we learn from the Regional Forest Agreement program

Summary There are 1641 M ha of native forest across Australia, with 371 M ha in private ownership. A further 741 M ha are under private management in a variety of leasehold tenures. Across the Regional Forest Agreement (RFA) regions, about 25% of sawlogs (∼878 000 m32 y-1) were sourced from private forest prior to the RFAs. Privately managed forests are an important source of timber in many regions and provide other goods and services, including grazing, honey, water, biodiversity conservation and carbon storage. This report summarises the status and some aspects of management of private forests based on information from the National Forest Inventory and the Comprehensive Regional Assessments (CRA) that underpinned the RFA program. The private commercial native forests are in Queensland, New South Wales and Tasmania with smaller areas in Victoria and Western Australia. South Australia and the Northern Territory also have considerable areas of private forest, but only a small proportion could support commercial timber production. In most regions there is a relatively even distribution of the principal forest types on public and private land, but commonly some forest types in private ownership are either absent or poorly represented on public land. A number of RFAs include specific actions to conserve examples of these.nnn About 32% of the forests studied for RFAs are in private ownership, but generally forest use options considered only public native forests. However, because ecological vegetation classes were mapped for all tenures in all regions, significant information was generated on the distribution and conservation values of private forests. There were also timber assessments at the strategic level in some regions, and private timber production was documented for most regions. Management and disturbance history of private forests is overall not well documented. Disturbances such as fire and grazing, however, commonly cause impacts that differ from conditions in similar forest types on public land. Substantial areas of private forest have previously been cleared and are now in a regrowth condition. The primary outcomes of the RFAs for private land were improved knowledge of the forest estate and its management history: across all CRA/RFA regions, maps of forest types or forest ecosystem equivalents were produced, and statistics on areas and conservation values were derived. The identification of ecosystems occurring predominantly on private land and under-represented in the comprehensive, adequate and representative reserve system is an essential element in developing a conservation strategy across all land tenures.