Roger G. Johnston

Tamper‐indicating seals for nuclear disarmament and hazardous waste management

Tamper‐indicating seals have important applications in many areas, including nuclear disarmament and hazardous waste management. There are, however, many theoretical and practical problems with current seals and seal usage, as well as with tamper detection in general. Most current seals appear to be highly vulnerable to simple and rapid attacks, although this can change with improvements to the seals or to how they are used. Few seals appear to be designed with disarmament and waste management applications in mind. Better seals are possible, especially if new approaches and technologies can be exploited. Seals based on sophisticated technology, however, do not automatically provide better security.

An Anticounterfeiting Strategy Using Numeric Tokens

The counterfeiting of pharmaceuticals continues to be a major worldwide problem with serious public health and economic consequences. In theory, anticounterfeiting tags could help to solve this problem. Unfortunately, there are currently no practical, effective tags that significantly resist counterfeiting.One possible solution is a relatively low-tech and low-cost approach called the ‘Call-in the Numeric Token’ (CNT) technique. It relies on participation by pharmaceutical customers (possibly including consumers). They check, via phone or the Internet, on the validity of the unique, random, unpredictable identity (ID) number assigned to each pharmaceutical container they possess. The numerical container ID is a virtual tag or token, rather than a physical one that is susceptible to counterfeiting. Counterfeiters are hampered by being unable to reliably guess valid IDs, by being unable to easily acquire large numbers of existing valid IDs, and by being detected when multiple customers report the same IDs.At least some counterfeit products can be detected even if only a small percentage of customers participate. The technique is particularly well suited for single-dose (‘unit of use’) packaging, but can otherwise be adapted and automated for resellers, wholesalers, repackagers, and other high-volume customers.While this technique will not completely eliminate counterfeiting, using the CNT technique can make pharmaceutical counterfeiting easier to detect and study.

Refractive index detector using Zeeman interferometry

We discuss the theory and error analysis for an ultrasensitive refractive index detector based on the two frequency Zeeman effect laser. Experimental measurements on gases agree fairly well with predictions. With a 5-cm pathlength, the typical interferometry stability is Deltan = 8 x 10(-9)/h. Resolution is Deltan = 1 x 10(-9).

Phase differential scattering from microspheres

Differential phase measurements on scattered light are possible using the two-frequency Zeeman effect laser. We refer to such measurements as phase differential scattering (PDS) in contrast to conventional intensity differential scattering measurements. PDS has certain significant experimental advantages for light scattering studies, most notably its simplicity. We find good agreement between experiment and theory for PDS from aqueous suspensions of polystyrene microspheres. The data show a strong dependence on concentration when the microspheres are larger than dipoles.

Characterizing gastrolith surface roughness with light scattering

Abstract Light scattering measurements on gastroliths, suspected gastroliths, and stream-polished rocks are compared using the Kirchhoff approximation for scattering by rough surfaces. The results for suspected and known gastroliths are very similar. Stream-polished rocks, however, exhibit greater surface roughness. Light scattering appears to be a practical method for rapidly and non-destructively characterizing gastroliths.

Identifying moa gastroliths using a video light scattering instrument

When not found with fossil bone, gastroliths (fossil gizzard stones) may be hard to identify. One attribute that is potentially useful is their high degree of surface polish, presumably caused by abrasion in the animals gizzard. A novel video laser light scattering instrument is used to characterize the surface roughness of suspected moa gastroliths, as well as similar (non-gastrolith) quartz rocks that were polished by ocean waves. The instrument is fairly successful at distinguishing between the two types of samples.

A proposed approach for monitoring nuclear warhead dismantlement

Two novel approaches for monitoring nuclear warhead dismantlement have been developed by the Applied Monitoring and Transparency Laboratory at Los Alamos National Lab. These approaches were recently demonstrated at Pantex and in the Device Assembly Facility (DAF) at the Nevada Test Site. The systems used to demonstrate these concepts are called the Integrated Facility Monitoring System (IFMS) and the Magazine Transparency System (MTS). IFMS is intended as a limited chain‐of‐custody system for monitoring dismantlement operations, while MTS can be used for short or long‐term storage (and possibly the transport) of nuclear weapons, components, and materials. Both IFMS and MTS possess a number of the attributes required for an effective START III regime including negotiability, simplicity, good confidence and transparency, minimal invasiveness, limited needed for the presence of foreign personnel or hardware inside nuclear facilities, protection for classified information, and no compromise of domestic nuclear security and safeguards. Additional testing of these approaches under realistic conditions will improve the chances that such systems could be used effectively in future arms control agreements.

Statistical Artifacts in the Ratio of Discrete Quantities

Abstract The ratio is a familiar statistic, but it is often misused. One frequently overlooked problem occurs when ratioing two discrete (digitized) variables. Fine structure appears in the histogram of the ratio that can be very subtle, or can sometimes even dominate the histogram. It disappears when the numerator and/or denominator become continuous. This statistical artifact is not a binning error, nor is it removed by taking more data. It is important to be aware of the artifact in order to avoid misinterpretation of ratio data. We provide examples of the statistical artifact (including one from baseball) and discuss ways to avoid or minimize the problems it can cause.

Rapid, differential microthermometry using Zeeman interferometry

Zeeman interferometry, based on the two‐frequency Zeeman effect laser, can be used for simple, noncontact differential thermometry. The thermometry is differential in both space and time. Small (0.73 μl ) laser‐heated volumes were monitored with a Zeeman interferometer. Heating rates varied over six orders of magnitude from 180 μK/s to 330 K/s. Temporal resolution was 10 μs. Measured temperatures and measured rates of heating were compared with theory for slowly and rapidly heated samples, respectively.

Safeguarding this and verifying that: Fuzzy concepts, confusing terminology, and their detrimental effects on nuclear husbandry

Words and concepts may have remarkable power, especially in international matters where subtleties and ambiguities in meaning can have major implications for treaty interpretation and compliance. In the diplomatic and political sphere, ambiguity has its benefits, such as for attaining consensus or strategic gain. Fuzzy concepts may thus be embraced purposefully by international players to achieve policy goals. While deliberate fuzziness may therefore have a role in the international political arena, inadvertent ambiguity should be avoided for technical arms control. When it comes to actually planning and implementing practical nuclear arms control efforts, inaccuracy and incorrectness can only confuse and lead to misunderstandings—potentially with detrimental effects on long-term nuclear security. Moreover, as an important input to political arms control discussions, technical inaccuracy may stand at risk of blurring opportunities for sound political action, thereby limiting the fulfillment of the true potential of specific arms control measures. Morten Bremer Maerli is a researcher at the Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI). He has been working on nuclear nonproliferation assistance to Russia since 1995. Dr. Roger Johnston, CPP, heads the Vulnerability Assessment Team in the Applied Monitoring and Transparency Laboratory at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL).