Roger Hiemstra

Continuing Education for the Aged: a Survey of Needs and Interests of Older People

This study investigated the educational needs and interests of 86 retired persons participating in senior citizen center activities or living in residential centers for the aged. Two hypotheses were examined: That the aged prefer residential or senior citizen center educational activities to those offered in formal educational set tings, and that the aged perceive instrumental activities (compet ency areas designed for effective mastery of old age challenges) as more important than expressive activities (experiences designed to increase a persons enjoyment of life.) Analysis of questionnaire data revealed significant (.001 level) support for both hypotheses. Additional information collected showed that transportation prob lems and evening-only educational activities limit participation. It was concluded that adult educators must consider the aged as clientele with special needs and interests.

HOW OLDER PERSONS ARE PORTRAYED IN TELEVISION ADVERTISING: IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATORS

Abstract This article describes an examination of recent television ads, primarily in respect to the treatment of older persons. The purpose was to analyze the ads to determine if older people and images of aging are portrayed in negative or stereotypical ways. A total of 136 commercials were selected for content analyses. The sample of older persons and people of other age groups were viewed and coded by a minimum of two judges. The most significant finding was the absence of the elderly in television commercials. Only 11 of 358 human characters were judged to be 60 or older, only 41 were 50 or older. Of the 130 human characters judged to be central figures, only 6 were thought to be 60 or older. This article provides several implications for educators. They center around the notion that the educator must become assertive in helping both the older person and the Madison Avenue executive take steps to portray the older person more positively and realistically.

The Older Adult's Learning Projects.

This paper examines the learning activity of older adults. Utilizing the methodology for identifying learning projects derived by Tough (1971), we interviewed 214 Nebraskans, 55 or older (average age, 68.11). Findings included the following: (1) nearly 325 hours and 3.3 learning projects were the annual averages, (2) a majority of the learning activity was self‐directed, (3) there were no differences in the means for nine demographic sub groupings on the number of annual hours in learning, and (4) upper‐middle‐ and upper‐class, college‐graduated, and whitecollar respondents carried out significantly more learning projects than their counterpart subgroups. It is suggested that adult educators must reexamine their roles as supporters of formal institutional programs in light of the data on learning projects.

Older Adult Learning: Instrumental and Expressive Categories.

This article examines older adult preferences for instrumental vs. expressive learning activities. Course title selections and actual learning activity information were analyzed. Interviews with 256 Nebraskans, 55 or older, (average age was 68.11) were obtained. Hypotheses and results were (a) predicted preference for instrumental learning was supported; (b) greater preference for instrumental learning by blue‐collar workers and the less educated received partial support as no differences existed for the occupational category but individuals without college degrees preferred instrumental courses; and (c) predicted differences in learning activity received partial support as younger people, white‐collar workers, college graduates, nonwhites, and married people were more involved with instrumental learning. It was concluded that more instrumental learning opportunities must be made available to older people.

Instrumental and Expressive Learning: Some Comparisons

Preferences for and learning activity in instrumental (basic or skill mastery) and expressive (enjoyment or self-fulfillment) education are examined. Interviews with 256 Nebraskans, fifty-five or older, provided information to examine hypotheses of 1) greater preference for instrumental learning (supported), 2) no preference differences according to age, sex, and location groupings (partially supported), 3) predicted preference for expressive learning by white collar workers and college graduates (not supported), and 4) no preference differences according to race, marital status, and social class groupings (partially supported). Comparisons with earlier (1972) data are included; an increased overall preference for instrumental education was found.

Educational planning for older adults: a survey of "expressive" vs. "instrumental" preferences.

The right kinds of educational opportunities, if properly planned and administered, will contribute to the welfare of older adults. To provide some planning information and to determine the educational opportunities preferred, a questionnaire survey was carried out with 75 retired persons. They were asked to select those adult education courses in which they would like to participate. The courses were either instrumental (basic or skill mastery) or expressive (enjoyment or new experiences) in nature. It was found that a greater interest than could be expected by chance was reported toward instrumental courses.

A Survey of "Felt" Versus "Real" Needs of Physical Therapists.

Constantly emerging knowledge has made continual learning a necessity for health-related professionals. This research deter mined some educational needs of one professional group, physical therapists, to help plan necessary continuing education. A ques tionnaire was administered to 77 physical therapists to determine and compare felt needs (personal perceptions symptomatic of problems) and real needs (actual knowledge or skill weaknesses). A literature review prompted the hypothesis (null form) of no correlation between perceived felt needs and demonstrated real needs. Statistical testing (Pearson correlation) suggested a failure to reject the null hypothesis (.05 level). The differences existing between felt and real needs indicates the complexity of the needs assessment process and the limitations of a mailed questionnaire that only solicits perceptions of need in planning continuing edu cation programs.

ELDERLY INTERESTS IN THE EXPRESSIVE DOMAIN

Several researchers have examined elderly learning preferences and involvement in terms of the instrumental (basic or skill mastery) and expressive (enjoyment or self‐fulfillment) dichotomy. An overall preference for instrumental types of learning usually is found; however, certain types of older individuals will report preferences for expressive types of activities. A factor analysis of data on expressive and instrumental choices resulted in ten factors with more than one item loading at 0.40 or higher. The first factor, Expressive Arts Interest, accounted for 31% of the variance. Five other factors were also expressive in nature. Some implications in terms of assessing needs, planning programs, teaching, and research are presented.

The Contributions of Howard Yale McClusky to an Evolving Discipline of Educational Gerontology.

The development of interest, knowledge, and professional involvement in educational gerontology has been evolutionary. Knowledge from various disciplines has contributed to this development. Howard Mc‐Clusky, professor emeritus of adult education and educational psychology at the University of Michigan, has made many valuable contributions. His advocacy of limitless human potential throughout life has included work toward the development of knowledge about adults as learners and corresponding instructional needs. McCluskys development of a “theory of margin” has facilitated an understanding of the need to balance in the later years those stresses and demands (load) on a person with his or her coping resources (power). He also has provided insights to program developers regarding the importance of time perceptions and differences in how learning needs are categorized. He calls for intergenerational approaches to older adult instruction efforts and provides some optimistic hope for the future of educationa...

Lessons Pertinent for Teaching with Computers.

The Internets growth and its impact on learners has been phenomenal and accessing the Web is the norm in our daily lives. Youths use the Internet to support their school activities in many ways. The National Science Foundation supported a qualitative research project that was designed to better understand the Internets impact. It involved extensive interviews with thirty-four rural youths in two states who had broadband Internet access via satellite transmissions. Subjects rapidly gained skills through Web use to support their learning. The authors describe, through the youths, own words, various ways in which they interact with the Internet. The authors provide several suggestions on how teachers can exploit the growing Internet savvy of their students.