Roger Levermore

Sport and international development

List of Illustrations List of Contributors Preface L. Read and J. Bingham Introduction - Sport and Development: Mapping the Field R. Levermore and A. Beacom Sport-in-International Development: Theoretical Frameworks R. Levermore Sport-in-Development: Accountability or Development? F. Coalter A Delicate Balance: Major Sport Events and Development S. Cornelissen Disability Sport and the Politics of Development A. Beacom Dilemmas and Opportunities in Gender and Sport-in-development M. Saavedra On the Backs of Peer Educators: Using Theory to Interrogate the Role of Young People in the Field of Sport-in-development S. Nicholls Getting to Know You: Using Sport to Engage and Build Relationships with Socially Marginalized Young People T. Crabbe Southern Perspective on Sport-in-development: A Case Study of Football in Bamenda, Cameroon J. Fokwang Sport as International Aid: Assisting Development or Promoting Under-development in Sub-Saharan Africa? G. Akindes and M. Kirwan Conclusion Index

CSR for development through sport: examining its potential and limitations.

Abstract Recent publications have highlighted the growth of sport as a vehicle in deploying corporate social responsibility (CSR) programmes or for disseminating international development initiatives. However, very little has been written on the considerable increase of the use of sport with corporate social responsibility to further social and economic development. This will expand as a range of CSR for development initiatives are being launched to coincide with mega-sports events in the coming years, starting with the 2010 football World Cup. This article addresses this gap by charting the ways in which sport is being used by businesses (ranging from multinational corporations to sports federations) as part of discrete development initiatives. It highlights the opportunities (notably developing partnerships and reaching those alienated from traditional development) and limitations associated with this. Limitations form around Stefano Ponte et als typology of CSR initiatives, which is used to highlight the fact that many projects are poorly linked to core business objectives and are therefore less likely to be taken seriously and succeed. A lack of evaluation and the tarnished reputation of sport are other problems associated with CSR for development through sport.

Re-assessing sport-for-development: Moving beyond mapping the territory.

Over the past decade, as the efficacy of many development interventions was being challenged, sports-based development initiatives appeared to offer alternative conduits for addressing health, education and other developmental concerns. We have, over the past 5 years, contributed to an emerging body of literature, which has explored the rationale, structure and delivery frameworks underpinning this so-called sport-for-development movement. Commenting on the literature, Lindsey and Grattan are critical of the overt focus on ‘Northern’ actors engaged with sport-for-development programmes and postulate a ‘decentred’ approach (that encompasses a more nuanced understanding of ‘Southern voices’) thus broadening our comprehension of the development process. This article constitutes our response to Lindsey and Grattans contentions, while also taking into account Darnell and Hayhursts rejoinder, which advocates a refocusing on the global hegemony of key development actors and a critical analysis of Northern-led development initiatives. We argue that both papers make valuable contributions, promoting the theorizing of sport-for-development discourse through what are in many respects, methodologically rigorous complementary perspectives. Having examined the contribution of these two papers, we consider key issues that are likely to characterize the future trajectory of sport-for-development discourse thus taking the debate beyond ‘mapping the territory’. These issues include the power relations in sport-for-development; the evolving contribution of sports INGOs as key actors in sport-for-development; and the challenge of evaluating development processes. This article highlights the importance of engaging with the established mainstream development discourse that provides an extensive body of theory through which to construct a critical assessment of sport-for-development. This is evident, for example, in contending theories relating to the process of evaluating the impact of development interventions. This article concludes by highlighting the importance of listening to the voices of all stakeholders involved in the sport-for-development process if the significance of such interventions is to be fully understood.

The Paucity of, and Dilemma in, Evaluating Corporate Social Responsibility for Development through Sport

Abstract Corporate social responsibility (csr) and sport—often in combination with each other—are being increasingly voiced as vehicles that assist various forms of social and economic development, particularly in years with mega-sporting events like the 2010 football World Cup. However, there is little evidence of evaluation to demonstrate that csr-for-development or sport-for-development works (especially over time). This article examines the extent to which evaluation of csr for development through sport has been undertaken, with specific reference to the 2010 World Cup—an event portrayed as displaying developmental virtues. The research highlights not only a paucity of evaluation for csr for development in general and csr for development through sport in particular (as discussion on evaluation largely revolves around financial performance, often from the perspective of the corporation) but also a dilemma: when prevailing techniques of evaluation of mainstream development are conducted, a concern is raised that the techniques implemented are overly managerial or one-dimensional, representing a crass tick-box mentality that fails to address the contextual environment in which development is delivered and steeped in unequal power relations. As a result, the critical development perspective can point to a further element that highlights the paucity and inherent problems of csr for development.

Sport-in-International Development: Theoretical Frameworks

The academic field of international development is characterized by often intense debates between competing perspectives which influence debate and therefore strategy and policy in the international development policy-making field (Hettne, 1995).2 For example, Rostow (1960) was both a leading modernization theorist and senior administrator in post 1945 US administrations. Likewise, neo-liberal theorists and strategists significantly influence the work of major development agencies such as the World Bank and governments in some high income countries. This is an important point to note for those operating in, or assessing, sport-in-development because they occasionally need to engage with these debates in order to better understand how sport-in-development might be perceived, especially in highlighting its potential weaknesses and limitations.

Official policies and informal transversal networks: Creating ‘pan‐European identifications’ through sport?

The idea that sport has been drawn into helping build a collective identity around the nation-state, particularly in the immediate ‘era of independence’ after 1945, is well documented. However, it is only recently that sport has been linked to notions of moulding what we term here as ‘pan-European identifications’. It is our argument that there are two distinctive forms to such identification. The first posits a tangible notion of identity based around territories such as nation-states. Sport assists in this process through ‘official’ policies, such as declarations, reports and statements by the European Commission and other pan-European institutions. The second form recognizes that increasing transversal interactions weakens ideas of territorialized identity, resulting in a looser ‘sense of belonging’. Sport helps craft identifications here in an informal manner through pan-European sporting competitions, such as the UEFA Champions League and 2004 European football championships. This article is structured to look at both forms of this sport/identification interface whilst also considering the complex nature of sport and identity by explaining how sport can simultaneously erode such identifications.

English professional football clubs: Can business parameters of small and medium‐sized enterprises be applied?

Purpose – In the last two decades sports studies and sports management journals have called for there to be research in sports management that explores sports links to mainstream management analyses. The purpose of this paper is to argue that in many ways the sports sector is dominated by small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs), which have a different dynamic to larger entities and therefore should be analysed accordingly. This paper applies an SME perspective on English professional football clubs.Design/methodology/approach – This paper, drawn from 22 semi‐structured interviews with key individuals in the English professional football (soccer) industry, employs an interpretivist approach of semi‐structured interviews of key personnel to provide an account of the business practices prevalent in the English football industry.Findings – The findings are as follows: that the sports industry can be regarded as one that is largely constituted of elements that are ascribed with characteristics associated wit...

Opportunities, Limitations, Questions

Sport-in-development is in its formative years. The use of sport as a development tool reflects efforts to broaden the activities of the development process. This increased usage of a range of sports in a number of development contexts is due to a combination of factors, including the need to find new ways to facilitate and promote developmental goals, especially to areas/communities affected by well documented concerns over the effectiveness of the state (and other mainstream actors) to improve conditions for their citizens (as discussed by Levermore in Chapter 2). The appeal of sport to reach communities, particularly young people, largely excluded from substantive traditional development activity is an argument put forward by many advocates of sport-in-development. For example, Nelson Mandela is frequently referenced as saying: Sport has the power to change the world. It has the power to inspire in a way that little else does. It speaks to youth in a language they understand. Sport can create hope, where once there was despair. It is more powerful than governments in breaking down barriers. It laughs in the face of discrimination (quoted for instance by The Guardian, 2004 and Sporting Equals, undated).

For business or pleasure? A discussion of the impact of European Union law on the economic and socio‐cultural aspects of football

Over the last century, football has evolved dramatically. The most significant feature of this has been the rapid commercialisation of the professional game, which has made many European clubs immensely successful in diversifying revenue streams as well as in playing terms. But for clubs in the European Union, this process has also brought new challenges. European Union law regulates economic activity between member states and as UEFA and its top clubs increase their economic powers, so the rules and regulations governing them fall within the remit of the European Commission and Court of Justice. As a result, practices such as pan‐European broadcasting and transfer of players must abide by the Treaty on the European Union. However, football also exists within a socio‐economic sphere, and this regulation is transforming football as a cultural entity; a sport that is recognised by the EU as playing an important role in identity formation, bringing people together and in supporting local communities generally. This article will analyse the involvement of the EU in the economic and socio‐cultural spheres of professional and amateur football in Europe, and asks what steps should now be taken by the EU and footballs governing bodies in order to safeguard Europes most popular sporting activity.