Roger R. Fu

Dawn Arrives at Ceres: Exploration of a Small Volatile-Rich World

On 6 March 2015, Dawn arrived at Ceres to find a dark, desiccated surface punctuated by small, bright areas. Parts of Ceres’ surface are heavily cratered, but the largest expected craters are absent. Ceres appears gravitationally relaxed at only the longest wavelengths, implying a mechanically strong lithosphere with a weaker deep interior. Ceres’ dry exterior displays hydroxylated silicates, including ammoniated clays of endogenous origin. The possibility of abundant volatiles at depth is supported by geomorphologic features such as flat crater floors with pits, lobate flows of materials, and a singular mountain that appears to be an extrusive cryovolcanic dome. On one occasion, Ceres temporarily interacted with the solar wind, producing a bow shock accelerating electrons to energies of tens of kilovolts.

A partially differentiated interior for (1) Ceres deduced from its gravity field and shape

Remote observations of the asteroid (1) Ceres from ground- and space-based telescopes have provided its approximate density and shape, leading to a range of models for the interior of Ceres, from homogeneous to fully differentiated. A previously missing parameter that can place a strong constraint on the interior of Ceres is its moment of inertia, which requires the measurement of its gravitational variation together with either precession rate or a validated assumption of hydrostatic equilibrium. However, Earth-based remote observations cannot measure gravity variations and the magnitude of the precession rate is too small to be detected. Here we report gravity and shape measurements of Ceres obtained from the Dawn spacecraft, showing that it is in hydrostatic equilibrium with its inferred normalized mean moment of inertia of 0.37. These data show that Ceres is a partially differentiated body, with a rocky core overlaid by a volatile-rich shell, as predicted in some studies. Furthermore, we show that the gravity signal is strongly suppressed compared to that predicted by the topographic variation. This indicates that Ceres is isostatically compensated, such that topographic highs are supported by displacement of a denser interior. In contrast to the asteroid (4) Vesta, this strong compensation points to the presence of a lower-viscosity layer at depth, probably reflecting a thermal rather than compositional gradient. To further investigate the interior structure, we assume a two-layer model for the interior of Ceres with a core density of 2,460–2,900 kilograms per cubic metre (that is, composed of CI and CM chondrites), which yields an outer-shell thickness of 70–190 kilometres. The density of this outer shell is 1,680–1,950 kilograms per cubic metre, indicating a mixture of volatiles and denser materials such as silicates and salts. Although the gravity and shape data confirm that the interior of Ceres evolved thermally, its partially differentiated interior indicates an evolution more complex than has been envisioned for mid-sized (less than 1,000 kilometres across) ice-rich rocky bodies.

Cratering on Ceres: Implications for its crust and evolution

INTRODUCTION Thermochemical models have predicted that the dwarf planet Ceres has, to some extent, formed a mantle. Moreover, due to viscous relaxation, these models indicate that Ceres should have an icy crust with few or no impact craters. However, the Dawn spacecraft has shown that Ceres has elevation excursions of ~15 km, cliffs, graben, steep-sided mountains, and a heavily cratered surface. RATIONALE We used Dawn’s Framing Camera to study the morphology, size frequency, and spatial distribution of the craters on Ceres. These data allow us to infer the structure and evolution of Ceres’ outer shell. RESULTS A large variety of crater morphologies are present on Ceres, including bowl-shaped craters, polygonal craters, floor-fractured craters, terraces, central peaks, smooth floors, flowlike features, bright spots, secondary craters, and crater chains. The morphology of some impact craters is consistent with water ice in the subsurface. Although this might have favored relaxation, there are also large unrelaxed craters. The transition from bowl-shaped simple craters to modified complex craters occurs at diameters of about 7.5 to 12 km. Craters larger than 300 km are absent, but low-pass filtering of the digital elevation model suggests the existence of two quasi-circular depressions with diameters of ~570 km (125.56°E and 19.60°N) and ~830 km (24.76°W and 0.5°N). Craters are heterogeneously distributed across Ceres’ surface, with more craters in the northern versus the southern hemisphere. The lowest crater densities are associated with large, well-preserved southern hemisphere impact craters such as Urvara and Yalode. Because the low crater density (LCD) terrain extends across a large latitude range in some cases (e.g., Urvara and Yalode: ~18°N and 75°S; Kerwan: ~30°N and 46°S), its spatial distribution is inconsistent with simple relaxation driven by warmer equatorial temperatures. We instead propose that impact-driven resurfacing is the more likely LCD formation process, although we cannot completely rule out an internal (endogenic) origin. We applied two different methodologies to derive absolute model ages from observed crater size-frequency distributions. The lunar-derived model adapts the lunar production and chronology functions to impact conditions on Ceres, taking into account impact velocities, projectile densities, current collision probabilities, and surface gravity. The asteroid-derived model derives a production function by scaling the directly observed object size-frequency distribution from the main asteroid belt (extended to sizes <5 km by a collisional model) to the resulting size-frequency distribution of cerean craters, using similar cerean target parameters as the lunar-derived model. By dating a smooth region associated with the Kerwan crater, we determined absolute model ages of 550 million and 720 million years, depending on which chronology model is applied. CONCLUSION Crater morphology and the simple-to-complex crater transition indicate that Ceres’ outer shell is likely neither pure ice nor pure rock but an ice-rock mixture that allows for limited relaxation. The heterogeneous crater distribution across the surface indicates crustal heterogeneities and a complex geologic evolution of Ceres. There is evidence for at least some geologic activity occurring in Ceres’ recent history. Spatial density of craters larger than 20 km on Ceres. Crater rims are shown as black solid circles. Blue indicates areas with LCDs; yellow and red represent more highly cratered areas. The smallest dashed ellipse denotes the idealized former rim of an extremely degraded impact crater at 48.9°E and 44.9°S, which is barely recognizable in imagery but apparent from the global digital elevation model. Also shown as dashed circles are the outlines of two large putative basins. Unambiguously recognized basins >300 km in diameter are missing, and there are several areas with LCDs associated with large impact craters (e.g., Yalode, Urvara, Kerwan, Ezinu, Vinotonus, Dantu, and two unnamed craters northeast and southeast of Oxo). Areas A and B are topographic rises with central depressions that also show LCDs. Thermochemical models have predicted that Ceres, is to some extent, differentiated and should have an icy crust with few or no impact craters. We present observations by the Dawn spacecraft that reveal a heavily cratered surface, a heterogeneous crater distribution, and an apparent absence of large craters. The morphology of some impact craters is consistent with ice in the subsurface, which might have favored relaxation, yet large unrelaxed craters are also present. Numerous craters exhibit polygonal shapes, terraces, flowlike features, slumping, smooth deposits, and bright spots. Crater morphology and simple-to-complex crater transition diameters indicate that the crust of Ceres is neither purely icy nor rocky. By dating a smooth region associated with the Kerwan crater, we determined absolute model ages (AMAs) of 550 million and 720 million years, depending on the applied chronology model.

An ancient core dynamo in asteroid Vesta.

Vesta to the Core Vesta is one of the largest bodies in the main asteroid belt. Unlike most other asteroids, which are fragments of once larger bodies, Vesta is thought to have survived as a protoplanet since its formation at the beginning of the solar system (see the Perspective by Binzel, published online 20 September). Based on data obtained with the Gamma Ray and Neutron Detector aboard the Dawn spacecraft, Prettyman et al. (p. 242, published online 20 September) show that Vestas reputed volatile-poor regolith contains substantial amounts of hydrogen delivered by carbonaceous chondrite impactors. Observations of pitted terrain on Vesta obtained by Dawns Framing Camera and analyzed by Denevi et al. (p. 246, published online 20 September), provide evidence for degassing of volatiles and hence the presence of hydrated materials. Finally, paleomagnetic studies by Fu et al. (p. 238) on a meteorite originating from Vesta suggest that magnetic fields existed on the surface of the asteroid 3.7 billion years ago, supporting the past existence of a magnetic core dynamo. Paleomagnetic studies of a meteorite from asteroid Vesta reveal remanent magnetization produced by an ancient core dynamo. The asteroid Vesta is the smallest known planetary body that has experienced large-scale igneous differentiation. However, it has been previously uncertain whether Vesta and similarly sized planetesimals formed advecting metallic cores and dynamo magnetic fields. Here we show that remanent magnetization in the eucrite meteorite Allan Hills A81001 formed during cooling on Vesta 3.69 billion years ago in a surface magnetic field of at least 2 microteslas. This field most likely originated from crustal remanence produced by an earlier dynamo, suggesting that Vesta formed an advecting liquid metallic core. Furthermore, the inferred present-day crustal fields can account for the lack of solar wind ion-generated space weathering effects on Vesta.

Solar nebula magnetic fields recorded in the Semarkona meteorite

Magnetic fields are proposed to have played a critical role in some of the most enigmatic processes of planetary formation by mediating the rapid accretion of disk material onto the central star and the formation of the first solids. However, there have been no experimental constraints on the intensity of these fields. Here we show that dusty olivine-bearing chondrules from the Semarkona meteorite were magnetized in a nebular field of 54 ± 21 microteslas. This intensity supports chondrule formation by nebular shocks or planetesimal collisions rather than by electric currents, the x-wind, or other mechanisms near the Sun. This implies that background magnetic fields in the terrestrial planet-forming region were likely 5 to 54 microteslas, which is sufficient to account for measured rates of mass and angular momentum transport in protoplanetary disks. Magnetic field strength in the early solar system is recorded in chondrules within a meteorite born of the asteroid Vesta. Magnetic moments in planetary history To know the magnetic history of the solar nebula in the age of planet formation, researchers turn to the most primitive meteorites. Samples such as the Semarkona chondrite are composed partly of chondrules, which reflect the strength of the ambient magnetic field when this material was last molten. Fu et al. used a SQUID microscope to measure the remnant magnetization in a section of Semarkona. The findings reveal secrets about what goes on inside protoplanetary disks. Science, this issue p. 1089

THE INTERIOR DYNAMICS OF WATER PLANETS

The ever-expanding catalog of detected super-Earths calls for theoretical studies of their properties in the case of a substantial water layer. This work considers such water planets with a range of masses and water mass fractions (2-5 M Earth, 0.02%-50% H2O). First, we model the thermal and dynamical structure of the near-surface for icy and oceanic surfaces, finding separate regimes where the planet is expected to maintain a subsurface liquid ocean and where it is expected to exhibit ice tectonics. Newly discovered exoplanets may be placed into one of these regimes given estimates of surface temperature, heat flux, and gravity. Second, we construct a parameterized convection model for the underlying ice mantle of higher ice phases, finding that materials released from the silicate-iron core should traverse the ice mantle on the timescale of 0.1 to 100 megayears. We present the dependence of the overturn times of the ice mantle and the planetary radius on total mass and water mass fraction. Finally, we discuss the implications of these internal processes on atmospheric observables.

DISCOVERY OF HOT GAS IN OUTFLOW IN NGC 3379

We report the discovery of a faint ( -->LX ~ 4 ? 1.5 ? 1037 ergs s?1, 0.5-2 keV), outflowing gaseous hot interstellar medium (ISM) in NGC 3379. This represents the lowest X-ray luminosity ever measured from a hot phase of the ISM in a nearby early-type galaxy. The discovery of the hot ISM in a very deep Chandra observation was possible thanks to its unique spectral and spatial signatures, which distinguish it from the integrated stellar X-ray emission, responsible for most of the unresolved emission in the Chandra data. This hot component is found in a region of ~800 pc in radius at the center of the galaxy and has a total mass -->M ~ 3 ? 1 ? 105 M?. Independent theoretical prediction of the characteristics of an ISM in this galaxy, based on the intrinsic properties of NGC 3379, reproduce well the observed luminosity, temperature, and radial distribution and mass of the hot gas, and indicate that the gas is in an outflowing phase, predicted by models but not observed in any system so far.

Lifetime of the solar nebula constrained by meteorite paleomagnetism

Meteorite magnetism in the early solar system The young solar system contained a disc of gas and dust within which planet formation occurred. The disc eventually dissipated after the Sun ignited and the planets formed, but exactly when that happened has been difficult to determine. Wang et al. measured tiny magnetic fields preserved in angrites, an ancient type of meteorite. They interpret a drop in magnetic field strength about 4 million years after the solar system formed as a sign that the gas had cleared—along with the magnetic field that it carried. The results will enhance our understanding of planet formation, both in our solar system and around other Sun-like stars. Science, this issue p. 623 Magnetic fields in meteorites show how long it took for the gas in the protosolar disk to clear. A key stage in planet formation is the evolution of a gaseous and magnetized solar nebula. However, the lifetime of the nebular magnetic field and nebula are poorly constrained. We present paleomagnetic analyses of volcanic angrites demonstrating that they formed in a near-zero magnetic field (<0.6 microtesla) at 4563.5 ± 0.1 million years ago, ~3.8 million years after solar system formation. This indicates that the solar nebula field, and likely the nebular gas, had dispersed by this time. This sets the time scale for formation of the gas giants and planet migration. Furthermore, it supports formation of chondrules after 4563.5 million years ago by non-nebular processes like planetesimal collisions. The core dynamo on the angrite parent body did not initiate until about 4 to 11 million years after solar system formation.

Multi-scale three-dimensional characterization of iron particles in dusty olivine: Implications for paleomagnetism of chondritic meteorites

Abstract Dusty olivine (olivine containing multiple sub-micrometer inclusions of metallic iron) in chondritic meteorites is considered an ideal carrier of paleomagnetic remanence, capable of maintaining a faithful record of pre-accretionary magnetization acquired during chondrule formation. Here we show how the magnetic architecture of a single dusty olivine grain from the Semarkona LL3.0 ordinary chondrite meteorite can be fully characterized in three dimensions, using a combination of focused ion beam nanotomography (FIB-nT), electron tomography, and finite-element micromagnetic modeling. We present a three-dimensional (3D) volume reconstruction of a dusty olivine grain, obtained by selective milling through a region of interest in a series of sequential 20 nm slices, which are then imaged using scanning electron microscopy. The data provide a quantitative description of the iron particle ensemble, including the distribution of particle sizes, shapes, interparticle spacings and orientations. Iron particles are predominantly oblate ellipsoids with average radii 242 ± 94 × 199 ± 80 × 123 ± 58 nm. Using analytical TEM we observe that the particles nucleate on sub-grain boundaries and are loosely arranged in a series of sheets parallel to (001) of the olivine host. This is in agreement with the orientation data collected using the FIB-nT and highlights how the underlying texture of the dusty olivine is crystallographically constrained by the olivine host. The shortest dimension of the particles is oriented normal to the sheets and their longest dimension is preferentially aligned within the sheets. Individual particle geometries are converted to a finite-element mesh and used to perform micromagnetic simulations. The majority of particles adopt a single vortex state, with “bulk” spins that rotate around a central vortex core. We observed no particles that are in a true single domain state. The results of the micromagnetic simulations challenge some preconceived ideas about the remanence-carrying properties of vortex states. There is often not a simple predictive relationship between the major, intermediate, and minor axes of the particles and the remanence vector imparted in different fields. Although the orientation of the vortex core is determined largely by the ellipsoidal geometry (i.e., parallel to the major axis for prolate ellipsoids and parallel to the minor axis for oblate ellipsoids), the core and remanence vectors can sometimes lie at very large (tens of degrees) angles to the principal axes. The subtle details of the morphology can control the overall remanence state, leading in some cases to a dominant contribution from the bulk spins to the net remanence, with profound implications for predicting the anisotropy of the sample. The particles have very high switching fields (several hundred millitesla), demonstrating their high stability and suitability for paleointensity studies.

Micrometer‐scale magnetic imaging of geological samples using a quantum diamond microscope

Remanent magnetization in geological samples may record the past intensity and direction of planetary magnetic fields. Traditionally, this magnetization is analyzed through measurements of the net magnetic moment of bulk millimeter to centimeter sized samples. However, geological samples are often mineralogically and texturally heterogeneous at submillimeter scales, with only a fraction of the ferromagnetic grains carrying the remanent magnetization of interest. Therefore, characterizing this magnetization in such cases requires a technique capable of imaging magnetic fields at fine spatial scales and with high sensitivity. To address this challenge, we developed a new instrument, based on nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond, which enables direct imaging of magnetic fields due to both remanent and induced magnetization, as well as optical imaging, of room-temperature geological samples with spatial resolution approaching the optical diffraction limit. We describe the operating principles of this device, which we call the quantum diamond microscope (QDM), and report its optimized image-area-normalized magnetic field sensitivity (20 µT⋅µm/Hz½), spatial resolution (5 µm), and field of view (4 mm), as well as trade-offs between these parameters. We also perform an absolute magnetic field calibration for the device in different modes of operation, including three-axis (vector) and single-axis (projective) magnetic field imaging. Finally, we use the QDM to obtain magnetic images of several terrestrial and meteoritic rock samples, demonstrating its ability to resolve spatially distinct populations of ferromagnetic carriers.