Roger Shrimpton

Worldwide Timing of Growth Faltering: Revisiting Implications for Interventions

OBJECTIVE: Our goal was to describe worldwide growth-faltering patterns by using the new World Health Organization (WHO) standards. METHODS: We analyzed information available from the WHO Global Database on Child Growth and Malnutrition, comprising data from national anthropometric surveys from 54 countries. Anthropometric data comprise weight-for-age, length/height-for-age, and weight-for-length/height z scores. The WHO regions were used to aggregate countries: Europe and Central Asia; Latin America and the Caribbean; North Africa and Middle East; South Asia; and sub-Saharan Africa. RESULTS: Sample sizes ranged from 1000 to 47 000 children. Weight for length/height starts slightly above the standard in children aged 1 to 2 months and falters slightly until 9 months of age, picking up after that age and remaining close to the standard thereafter. Weight for age starts close to the standard and falters moderately until reaching approximately −1 z at 24 months and remaining reasonably stable after that. Length/height for age also starts close to the standard and falters dramatically until 24 months, showing noticeable bumps just after 24, 36, and 48 months but otherwise increasing slightly after 24 months. CONCLUSIONS: Comparison of child growth patterns in 54 countries with WHO standards shows that growth faltering in early childhood is even more pronounced than suggested by previous analyses based on the National Center for Health Statistics reference. These findings confirm the need to scale up interventions during the window of opportunity defined by pregnancy and the first 2 years of life, including prevention of low birth weight and appropriate infant feeding practices.

Vitamin A policies need rethinking

The prevalence of vitamin A (VA) deficiency, which affects about one-third of children in developing countries, is falling only slowly. This is despite extensive distribution and administration of periodic (4- to 6-monthly) high-dose VA capsules over the past 20 years, now covering a reported 80% of children in developing countries. This massive programme was motivated largely by an expectation of reducing child mortality, stemming from findings in the 1980s and early 90s. Efficacy trials since 1994 have in most cases not confirmed a mortality impact of VA capsules. Only one large scale programme evaluation has ever been published, which showed no impact on 1-6-year-old mortality (the DEVTA trial, ending in 2003, in Uttar Pradesh, India). Periodic high-dose VA capsules may have less relevance now with changing disease patterns (notably, reductions in measles and diarrhoea). High-dose VA 6-monthly does not reduce prevalence of the deficiency itself, estimated by low serum retinol. It is proposed that: (i) there is no longer any evidence that intermittent high-dose VA programmes are having any substantial mortality effect, perhaps due to changing disease patterns; (ii) frequent intakes of vitamin A in physiological doses -e.g. through food-based approaches, including fortification, and through regular low-dose supplementation-are highly effective in increasing serum retinol (SR) and reducing vitamin A deficiency; (iii) therefore a policy shift is needed, based on consideration of current evidence. A prudent phase-over is needed towards increasing frequent regular intakes of VA at physiological levels, daily or weekly, replacing the high-dose periodic capsule distribution programmes. Moving resources in this direction must happen sooner or later: it should be sooner.

Preventing low birthweight and reduction of child mortality

Surprisingly little attention is paid to birthweight improvement as a means of reducing child mortality. Half of the 10 million pre-school-age children that die each year have malnutrition as an underlying or associated cause. Furthermore, the majority of these deaths are associated with the mild and moderate forms of malnutrition, reflecting how this effect is manifest across the whole population distribution. Similar relationships are seen between birthweight and neonatal mortality, with the least risk of neonatal death occurring in children born weighing more than 3.5 kg. Child malnutrition is increasingly recognized to be largely determined during the period of fetal and infant growth, when maternal nutrition has its strongest influence. Although the effects of maternal food supplements on mean birthweight are relatively small, because of their influence across the population distribution they have great biological significance. An increase of 100 g in mean birthweight is associated with a 30-50% reduction in neonatal mortality. The programmes that need to be put in place to improve maternal nutritional status are discussed, and the programme initiatives being promoted by UNICEF to prevent low birthweight, including multiple micronutrient supplementation trials are further described.

Aspectos nutritivos de alguns frutos da Amazonia ()

Various Amazonian fruits were analyzed incluiding Tucuma, Acai, Buriti, Pupunha, Piquia, Mari, Caiaue, Pataua, Uxi, Sapota, Sorva and Abrico. The levels of protein, fat, fiber, carbohydrates, energy, carotenoides and zinc are reported. The zinc and protein contents are low in comparison with human requirements. The palm fruits have a high fat content and are good energy sources. The high carotenoid contents indicate the potential of these fruits for enriching the Amazonian people diet poor in Vitamin A. The need for State programmes to promote the cultivation and distribution of the fruits to the urban population is emphasized.

Nutrition capacity development: a practice framework

OBJECTIVE To outline a framework and a process for assessing the needs for capacity development to achieve nutrition objectives, particularly those targeting maternal and child undernutrition. DESIGN Commentary and conceptual framework. SETTING Low- and middle-income countries. Result A global movement to invest in a package of essential nutrition interventions to reduce maternal and child undernutrition in low- and middle-income countries is building momentum. Capacity to act in nutrition is known to be minimal in most low- and middle-income countries, and there is a need for conceptual clarity about capacity development as a strategic construct and the processes required to realise the ability to achieve population nutrition and health objectives. The framework for nutrition capacity development proposed recognises capacity to be determined by a range of factors across at least four levels, including system, organisational, workforce and community levels. This framework provides a scaffolding to guide systematic assessment of capacity development needs which serves to inform strategic planning for capacity development. CONCLUSIONS Capacity development is a critical prerequisite for achieving nutrition and health objectives, but is currently constrained by ambiguous and superficial conceptualisations of what capacity development involves and how it can be realised. The current paper provides a framework to assist this conceptualisation, encourage debate and ongoing refinement, and progress capacity development efforts.

The first 500 days of life: policies to support maternal nutrition

Background From conception to 6 months of age, an infant is entirely dependent for its nutrition on the mother: via the placenta and then ideally via exclusive breastfeeding. This period of 15 months – about 500 days – is the most important and vulnerable in a childs life: it must be protected through policies supporting maternal nutrition and health. Those addressing nutritional status are discussed here. Objective and design This paper aims to summarize research on policies and programs to protect womens nutrition in order to improve birth outcomes in low- and middle-income countries, based on studies of efficacy from the literature, and on effectiveness, globally and in selected countries involving in-depth data collection in communities in Ethiopia, India and Northern Nigeria. Results of this research have been published in the academic literature (more than 30 papers). The conclusions now need to be advocated to policy-makers. Results The priority problems addressed are: intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), womens anemia, thinness, and stunting. The priority interventions that need to be widely expanded for women before and during pregnancy, are: supplementation with iron–folic acid or multiple micronutrients; expanding coverage of iodine fortification of salt particularly to remote areas and the poorest populations; targeted provision of balanced protein energy supplements when significant resources are available; reducing teenage pregnancies; increasing interpregnancy intervals through family planning programs; and building on conditional cash transfer programs, both to provide resources and as a platform for public education. All these have known efficacy but are of inadequate coverage and resourcing. The next steps are to overcome barriers to wide implementation, without which targets for maternal and child health and nutrition (e.g. by WHO) are unlikely to be met, especially in the poorest countries. Conclusions This agenda requires policy decisions both at Ministry and donor levels, and throughout the administrative system. Evidence-based interventions are established as a basis for these decisions, there are clear advocacy messages, and there are no scientific reasons for delay.Background From conception to 6 months of age, an infant is entirely dependent for its nutrition on the mother: via the placenta and then ideally via exclusive breastfeeding. This period of 15 months - about 500 days - is the most important and vulnerable in a childs life: it must be protected through policies supporting maternal nutrition and health. Those addressing nutritional status are discussed here. Objective and design This paper aims to summarize research on policies and programs to protect womens nutrition in order to improve birth outcomes in low- and middle-income countries, based on studies of efficacy from the literature, and on effectiveness, globally and in selected countries involving in-depth data collection in communities in Ethiopia, India and Northern Nigeria. Results of this research have been published in the academic literature (more than 30 papers). The conclusions now need to be advocated to policy-makers. Results The priority problems addressed are: intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), womens anemia, thinness, and stunting. The priority interventions that need to be widely expanded for women before and during pregnancy, are: supplementation with iron-folic acid or multiple micronutrients; expanding coverage of iodine fortification of salt particularly to remote areas and the poorest populations; targeted provision of balanced protein energy supplements when significant resources are available; reducing teenage pregnancies; increasing interpregnancy intervals through family planning programs; and building on conditional cash transfer programs, both to provide resources and as a platform for public education. All these have known efficacy but are of inadequate coverage and resourcing. The next steps are to overcome barriers to wide implementation, without which targets for maternal and child health and nutrition (e.g. by WHO) are unlikely to be met, especially in the poorest countries. Conclusions This agenda requires policy decisions both at Ministry and donor levels, and throughout the administrative system. Evidence-based interventions are established as a basis for these decisions, there are clear advocacy messages, and there are no scientific reasons for delay.

A saúde das crianças dos Estados do Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte e Sergipe, Brasil: descrição de uma metodologia para diagnósticos comunitários

No reliable data are available from most Brazilian states for a number of child health indicators, such as nutritional status, breast feeding, vaccine coverage, incidence and management of infectious diseases, and coverage of antenatal and perinatal services. How ever a methodology has been developed for state-wide, community-based health surveys for the obtaining of such information, which was recently applied in studies of representative samples of children from the states of Ceara, Sergipe and Rio Grande do Norte in Northeastern Brazil. The present report describes the key aspects of this methodology and some of the main findings. These results point out to the need for promoting breast feeding, increasing vaccine coverage, improving diarrhoea management with oral rehydration therapy and investing in antenatal and perinatal care, as well as in growth monitoring. They also show that child survival activities are paradoxically concentrated on higher-income, lower risk children. Besides contributing to the planning and evaluation of health programs, community-based child health surveys provide baseline data against which future progress may be ascertained.Para a maior parte dos estados brasileiros, inexistem indicadores confiaveis sobre a saude das criancas - tais como estado nutricional, aleitamento, cobertura vacinal, frequencia e manejo de doencas infecciosas e cobertura de servico de atencao pre e perinatal. Para obter tais informacoes, desenvolveu-se uma metodologia para diagnosticos a nivel estadual, aplicada recentemente em amostras representativas nos Estados do Ceara, Sergipe e Rio Grande do Norte. O presente artigo descreve os principais aspectos desta metodologia e alguns de seus achados mais relevantes. Os resultados obtidos apontam para a necessidade de incentivar o aleitamento materno, aumentar a cobertura vacinal, incrementar o uso da terapia de reidratacao oral durante a diarreia, melhorar a atencao pre e perinatal e a monitorizacao do crescimento. Mostra-se ainda que, paradoxalmente, as acoes de sobrevivencia infantil concentram-se primariamente em criancas de alta renda e portanto de baixo risco. Alem de propiciar o planejamento e avaliacao das acoes de saude, os diagnosticos fornecem dados basais com os quais os resultados de futuros inqueritos poderao ser comparados.

Setting priorities for zinc-related health research to reduce children's disease burden worldwide: an application of the Child Health and Nutrition Research Initiative's research priority-setting method.

OBJECTIVE To make the best use of limited resources for supporting health-related research to reduce child mortality, it is necessary to apply a suitable method to rank competing research options. The Child Health and Nutrition Research Initiative (CHNRI) developed a new methodology for setting health research priorities. To broaden experience with this priority-setting technique, we applied the method to rank possible research priorities concerning the control of Zn deficiency. Although Zn deficiency is not generally recognized as a direct cause of child mortality, recent research indicates that it predisposes children to an increased incidence and severity of several of the major direct causes of morbidity and mortality. DESIGN Leading experts in the field of Zn research in child health were identified and invited to participate in a technical working group (TWG) to establish research priorities. The individuals were chosen to represent a wide range of expertise in Zn nutrition. The seven TWG members submitted a total of ninety research options, which were then consolidated into a final list of thirty-one research options categorized by the type of resulting intervention. RESULTS The identified priorities were dominated by research investment options targeting Zn supplementation, and were followed by research on Zn fortification, general aspects of Zn nutrition, dietary modification and other new interventions. CONCLUSIONS In general, research options that aim to improve the efficiency of an already existing intervention strategy received higher priority scores. Challenges identified during the implementation of the methodology and suggestions to modify the priority-setting procedures are discussed.

Estudos nutricionais das populações rurais da Amazônia. II. Rio Negro

A nutrition survey was performed on a population inhabiting the banks of the River Negro in the State of, Amazonas, Brazil. Black water rivers such a River Negro have poor mineral. economics and low human population densities. All families having children under six years of age along a two hundred kilometer stretch of niver were included in the survey. Sixty families and 121 children, representing 4.8% of the total, rural population of the municipality, were studied. All children were weighed and measured and Subject to a clinical examination. In 60 children haemoglobin and haematocrit determinations were achieved and in 78 children faecal samples analyzed for parasites. The mothers were weighed, measured, interviewed and in 42 of them haemoglobin and haematocrit determinations were achieved.The hygiene situation of, the population was found to be very primitive , with little or no preocupation in treating river water before drinking and the majority defecating in the forest.The still birth Hate of 80/1000 births, the spontaneous abortions rate of 66.7/ 100 pregnancies and the infant mortality of 93.2/1 000 lives births were all very high.Breast feeding was prolonged with an average weaning age of 16 months and 72% of children being breast fed more than a year. Half of the mothers had introduced οther foods by six months of age, principally a pap made from fermented cassava flour. Some 65% of the children were malnourished according to the criteria. of, Gomez, whilst 70% were found to be stunted and 18% wasted. In the first semester of life only 15.8% of children were stunted but in the second six months 63.6% were stunted.In spite of the prolonged breast feeding 25% of children in the first year of life had diarrhoea at the time of the examination. The major peaks for diarrhoea were in the second semester and the second year of life, when acute malnutritian (wasting) was also found to be most prevalent. Children reported as having had a history of frequent diarrhoea were significantly more chronicaly malnourished (stunted) then children without such antecedents.Almost 85% of children examined had intestinal, parasites, with ascaris, hookworm and trichiuris affecting more than 60%. The most common clinical signs of deficiency for specific nutrients were, those for iron and possibly riboflavin and vitamina A. In 71.2% haemoglobin determinations values were below 11 g% and 74.2% of MCHC were below 30, suggesting iron deficiency anemia to be a serious problem in these children.Mothers were more frequently obese than wasted, suggesting that energy on total food intake was not limiting in the population. Three. quarters of, the mothers had eaten fish in the previous twenty four hours and a half had eaten wild game, principally fresh water turtles. Milk products, cereals and pulses were little, consumied with the staple food being fermented cassava flour. The consumption of fruits was limited to bananas and the use of vegetables limited to that- as condiments.Sixty two percent of mothers had inadequate haemoglobin levels, suggesting iron deficiency anemia to be a problem in spite of their apparently high animal protein, low fibre and low phythate diet.

Global Policy and Programme Guidance on Maternal Nutrition: What Exists, the Mechanisms for Providing It, and How to Improve Them?

Undernutrition in one form or another affects the majority of women of reproductive age in most developing countries. However, there are few or no effective programmes trying to solve maternal undernutrition problems. The purpose of the paper is to examine global policy and programme guidance mechanisms for nutrition, what their content is with regard to maternal nutrition in particular, as well as how these might be improved. Almost all countries have committed themselves politically to ensuring the right of pregnant and lactating women to good nutrition through the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women. Despite this, the World Health Organization (WHO) has not endorsed any policy commitments with regard to maternal nutrition. The only policy guidance coming from the various technical departments of WHO relates to the control of maternal anaemia. There is no policy or programme guidance concerning issues of maternal thinness, weight gain during pregnancy and/or low birthweight prevention. Few if any countries have maternal nutrition programmes beyond those for maternal anaemia, and most of those are not effective. The lack of importance given to maternal nutrition is related in part to a weakness of evidence, related to the difficulty of getting ethical clearance, as well as a generalised tendency to downplay the importance of those interventions found to be efficacious. No priority has been given to implementing existing policy and programme guidance for the control of maternal anaemia largely because of a lack of any dedicated funding, linked to a lack of Millennium Development Goals indicator status. This is partly due to the poor evidence base, as well as to the common belief that maternal anaemia programmes were not effective, even if efficacious. The process of providing evidence-based policy and programme guidance to member states is currently being revamped and strengthened by the Department of Nutrition for Health and Development of WHO through the Nutrition Guidance Expert Advisory Group processes. How and if programme guidance, as well as policy commitment for improved maternal nutrition, will be strengthened through the Nutrition Guidance Expert Advisory Group process is as yet unclear. The global movement to increase investment in programmes aimed at maternal and child undernutrition called Scaling Up Nutrition offers an opportunity to build developing country experience with efforts to improve nutrition during pregnancy and lactation. All member states are being encouraged by the World Health Assembly to scale-up efforts to improve maternal infant and young child nutrition. Hopefully Ministries of Health in countries most affected by maternal and child undernutrition will take leadership in the development of such plans, and ensure that the control of anaemia during pregnancy is given a great priority among these actions, as well as building programme experience with improved nutrition during pregnancy and lactation. For this to happen it is essential that donor support is assured, even if only to spearhead a few flagship countries.