Romain Meeusen

The Use of Cryotherapy in Sports Injuries

SummaryThe use of cold therapy in acute sports injuries as well as in the rehabilitation of the injured athlete has become a generally accepted treatment method. Various cooling modalities are used to apply cold to the injured area, e.g. ice packs, ice towels, ice massage, frozen gel packs, ethyl chloride and other vapocoolants, chemical reaction devices and inflatable splints using refrigerant gas. Most clinical studies report that the use of cryotherapy has a positive effect on pain reduction and on the recovery of various injuries. When the physiological processes produced by cryotherapy are examined in experimental situations, some of these reactions differ from expectations. Skin, subcutaneous, intramuscular and joint temperature changes depend on application method, initial temperature and application time. Intramuscular temperature continues to drop after the cooling modality has been removed. Results of various studies are consistent on the effects on neuromuscular and pain processes. Results of studies on cold and blood flow vary considerably, however it appears that blood flow increases with superficial cold application and decreases when cold is applied to large skin surface areas. Motor performance is affected by temperature with a critical temperature being around 18°C, above and beneath which muscle performance decreases. There is also a critical temperature for the application of cold with inflammation and oedema increasing at temperatures below 15°C. Precautions should be taken because prolonged application at very low temperatures could have deleterious effects.

The effects of acute dopamine reuptake inhibition on performance.

INTRODUCTIONnAcute bupropion (dopamine/noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor) administration significantly improved time trial performance and increased core temperature in the heat (30 degrees C).nnnPURPOSEnThe present study was performed to examine the effect of a dopaminergic reuptake inhibitor on exercise capacity and thermoregulation during prolonged exercise in temperate and warm conditions.nnnMETHODSnEight healthy well-trained male cyclists participated in this study. Subjects ingested either placebo (PLA; 20 mg) or methylphenidate (MPH; Ritalin; 20 mg) 1 h before the start of exercise in temperate (18 degrees C) or warm (30 degrees C) conditions and cycled for 60 min at 55% Wmax, immediately followed by a time trial (TT; PLA18 and MPH18; PLA30 and MPH30) to measure exercise performance.nnnRESULTSnMPH did not influence TT performance at 18 degrees C (P = 0.397). TT was completed 16% faster in MPH30 (38.1 +/- 6.4 min) than in PLA30 (45.4 +/- 7.3 min; P = 0.049). In the heat Tcore was significantly higher at rest (P = 0.009), and throughout the TT in MPH30 (P < 0.018), reaching values above 40 degrees C. Throughout MPH30, heart rates were significantly higher (P < 0.05).nnnCONCLUSIONSnThese results show that MPH has a clear ergogenic effect that was not apparent in 18 degrees C. The combination of a dopamine reuptake inhibitor and exercise in the heat clearly improved performance and caused hyperthermia without any change in the perception of effort or thermal stress compared with the PLA trial. This response may potentially increase the risk of developing heat illness during exercise in individuals taking drugs of this nature.

Effects of Different Recovery Interventions on Anaerobic Performances Following Preseason Soccer Training

In the preseason soccer training, morning and afternoon training sessions often are scheduled daily. The high frequency of training sessions could place heavy strain on biological systems, and it is necessary to apply proper recovery strategies for improving the players capability to regain an adequate working state for subsequent training units. However, the effect of recovery interventions following soccer training units is debatable, due to a lack of studies performed in field situations. The aim of this study was to examine, during a 21-day preseason soccer training, the most effective recovery intervention (i.e., passive, dry-aerobic exercises, water-aerobic exercises, electrostimulation) on anaerobic performances (i.e., squat jump, countermovement jump, bounce jumping, and 10-m sprint) and subjective ratings (i.e., perceived exertion and muscle pain), with the conditions before the intervention controlled and standardized. Twelve young (age: 18.1 ± 1.2 years) elite soccer players participated. Data were collected on 4 occasions 2 days apart and at the same time of the day. Activity and dietary intake were replicated on each occasion. After baseline measurements, participants performed a standardized training during which their heart rates and ratings of perceived exertion were recorded. This was followed by a 20-minute recovery intervention. After a 5-hour rest, athletes ratings of muscle pain were recorded prior to a second test session. There were no significant differences in exercise intensities and baseline anaerobic performances. Significantly (p > 0.01) better performances were observed in the afternoon. Although no main effect of recovery intervention was observed on anaerobic performances, dry-aerobic exercises (0.6 ± 0.9) and electrostimulation (0.6 ± 1.2) were more beneficial (p > 0.01) than water-aerobic exercises (2.1 ± 1.1) and passive rest (2.1 ± 1.7) for reducing muscle pain, which could affect the players working ability.

The influence of non-specific low back pain on pressure pain thresholds and disability

The purpose of this study was to investigate the pressure pain thresholds (PPTs) with respect to the Erector spinae and the hip muscles in 87 patients with subacute non‐specific low back pain (LBP) and to evaluate the relationship between the PPTs and disability.

Diagnosing overtraining in athletes using the two-bout exercise protocol

Objective In this work, whether a two-bout exercise protocol can be used to make an objective, immediately available distinction between non-functional over reaching (NFO) and overtraining syndrome (OTS) was studied. Design Underperforming athletes who were diagnosed with the suspicion of NFO or OTS were included in the study. Recovery of the athletes was monitored by a sports physician to retrospectively distinguish NFO from OTS. Setting Sports medicine laboratory Participants The protocol was started and completed by 10 underperforming athletes. NFO was retrospectively diagnosed in five athletes, and OTS was diagnosed in five athletes. Interventions A two-bout maximal exercise protocol was used to measure physical performance and stressinduced hormonal reactions. Main outcome measurements Exercise duration, heart rate and blood lactate concentration were measured at the end of both exercise tests. Venous concentrations cortisol, adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), prolactin and growth hormone were measured both before and after both exercise tests. Results Maximal blood lactate concentration was lower in OTS compared with NFO, while resting concentrations of cortisol, ACTH and prolactin concentrations were higher. However, sensitivity of these measures was low. The ACTH and prolactin reactions to the second exercise bout were much higher in NFO athletes compared with OTS and showed the highest sensitivity for making the distinction. Conclusions NFO might be distinguished from OTS based on ACTH and prolactin reactions to a two-bout exercise protocol. This protocol could be a useful tool for diagnosing NFO and OTS; however, more data should be collected before this test can be used as the gold standard.

Effects of Different Types of Acute and Chronic (Training) Exercise on Glycaemic Control in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

ObjectiveExercise has been accepted and generally recommended for the management of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D) and for improving the overall quality of life in affected individuals. This meta-analysis was conducted to determine the overall effects of exercise (acute bouts of exercise and chronic exercise [or training]) on acute and chronic glycaemic control in patients with T1D, the effects of different types of exercise on glycaemic control and which conditions are required to obtain these positive effects.MethodsPubMed, ISI Web of Knowledge and SPORTDiscus™ were consulted to identify studies on T1D and exercise. Cohen’s d statistics were used for calculating mean effect sizes (ES) as follows: small d = 0.3, medium d = 0.5 and large d = 0.8. Ninety-five percent confidence intervals (95% CIs) were used to establish the significance of our findings.ResultsFrom a total of 937 studies, 33 that met the inclusion criteria were selected. Nine studies were used to calculate the ES of a single bout of aerobic exercise; 13 studies to calculate the ES of aerobic training; 2 studies to calculate the ES of strength training; 4 studies to calculate the ES of combined (aerobic and strength) training and 6 studies to calculate the ES of high-intensity exercise (HIE) and training. ES for exercise on acute glycaemic control were large, while they were small for chronic glycaemic control. Aerobic exercise, resistance exercise, mixed exercise (aerobic combined with resistance training) and HIE acutely decreased blood glucose levels. To prevent late-onset hypoglycaemic episodes, the use of single bouts of sprints into an aerobic exercise can be recommended. This meta-analysis also showed that a regular exercise training programme has a significant effect on acute and chronic glycaemic control, although not all exercise forms showed significant results. Specifically, aerobic training is a favourable tool for decreasing chronic glycaemic control, while resistance training, mixed and HIE did not significantly improve chronic glycaemic control. Although, this meta-analysis showed there was a tendency for improvement in glycaemic control due to resistance training or resistance training combined with endurance training, there were not enough studies and/or subjects to confirm this statistically.ConclusionsBased on this meta-analysis, we can conclude that the addition of brief bouts of high-intensity, sprint-type exercise to aerobic exercise can minimize the risk of sustaining a hypoglycaemic episode. We can also conclude that only regular aerobic training will improve the glycated haemoglobin level of a patient with T1D.

Aerobic and anaerobic profiles, heart rate and match analysis in older soccer players.

The aim of the present study was to provide aerobic (maximal oxygen consumption – VO2max) and anaerobic [jump tests: counter-movement jump (CMJ) and bounce jump (BJ); and running tests: 10 m sprint and 10 m dribbling the ball (10 mDB)] profiles of older soccer players (n = 12), and heart rate (HR), blood lactate accumulation (La) and match analysis (individual motor activity and team behaviour) aspects of a soccer match. The maximal aerobic test values were: HRmax, 154 ± 14 beat min−1; maximal power, 160 ± 24 W; VO2peak, 36.3 ± 11.3 ml kg−1 min−1; peak La, 8.2 ± 1.8 mM. Jump test values were: CMJ, 21.2 ± 4.5 cm; BJ, 17.3 ± 4.8 cm. Running performances were: 10 m sprint, 2.06 ± 0.36 s; 10 mDB, 2.17 ± 0.21 s. Running showed similar values in the two halves (first half, 82%; second half, 88%), while walking lasted longer during the second half. Regarding the technical aspects of the match, 42% of the consecutive passes made in possession of the ball exceeded three passes, indicating that their play was structured in a cooperative manner. Older soccer players succeeded in maintaining good aerobic and anaerobic physical capability.

Newspaper Coverage of Women's Sports during the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games: Belgium, Denmark, France, and Italy.

In general, women are well represented among sport participants and sport audiences but not in the media. Data show that womens sport is greatly underreported and trivialized in newspapers. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to measure press coverage during the 2000 Summer Olympic Games in the largest circulating Belgian, Danish, French, and Italian daily newspapers by: (a) number of articles, (b) size, (c) page placement, (d) accompanying photographs, and (e) photograph size. For each sport covered, the athletes nationality and the gender were recorded. Compared to the 1996 Atlanta Games, there was an increase of 326 female athletes (+4%), and women competed in 25 sports and 132 events (44%) of the total 300 events. Although only 29.3% of the articles and 38% of photos were on womens sports, the newspaper coverage was similar to the distribution of participating athletes and events. No significant gender differences were found with respect to article size, page placement, accompanying photographs, or photograph size. The most covered sport was track and field, independent of national achievement. Other sports received different coverage in relation to national expectations, achievement, and participation. In conclusion, there was a trend to overcome gender inequities in media coverage during the Olympic Games, which may be due to the International Olympic Committees actions to promote increased participation of women in sport activities and to publicize their achievements. Moreover, during the Olympic Games, a nationalistic fervor might affect the equality of gender coverage.

Aerobic-Anaerobic Profiles, Heart Rate and Match Analysis in Old Basketball Players

Background: Scientific information on master competitions is mainly in individual sports and there is a lack of information on the senior team sport matches. Objective: To provide aerobic and anaerobic profiles of senior (55 ± 5 years) basketball players (n = 10), and to evaluate the physiological load and the match analysis of a senior basketball match. Methods: Participants were administered a maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) and anaerobic tests (jump tests: counter movement jump (CMJ) and bounce jump (BJ), and running tests: 10-m sprint and running 10 m while bouncing the ball (10-mBB)). During a senior basketball match, the players’ heart rate (HR), electrocardiogram (ECG), blood lactate concentration (LA) and motor activities were recorded. Results: The maximal aerobic test values were: HRpeak 149 ± 9 beats·min–1; power 187 ± 23 W; VO2peak 22.9 ± 2.2 ml·kg–1·min–1; LApeak 8.3 ± 1.9 mM. Jump test values were: CMJ = 24.9 ± 6.5 cm and BJ = 20.5 ± 4.75 cm. Running performances were: 10-m sprint in 2.26 ± 0.18 s; 10-mBB in 2.34 ± 0.14 s; 10-mBB/10-m sprint ratio 1.1 ± 0.1. During the match, no adverse event or ST-segment changes or complex arrhythmias occurred. HR exceeded 85% of HRpeak for 59 ± 37%. LA values were 3.7 ± 1.8 mM. Players spent 48% walking, 19% positioning, 17% running, 15% inactive, and 1% jumping. A limited number of fouls (2 ± 1.5) was observed and players performed only 2-point shots. Conclusion: Older basketball players undergoing a training regimen of 1.5 h·week–1 showed good anaerobic characteristics and a moderate aerobic capacity. Although the senior basketball match required high intensities (only 3% of total match time spent at HR <70% of HRmax), the ECG Holter monitoring showed no adverse event, ST-segment changes or complex arrhythmias. Finally, their play did not include the technical skills recently introduced to basketball.

Caffeine, Exercise and the Brain

Caffeine can improve exercise performance when it is ingested at moderate doses (3-6 mg/kg body mass). Caffeine also has an effect on the central nervous system (CNS), and it is now recognized that most of the performance-enhancing effect of caffeine is accomplished through the antagonism of the adenosine receptors, influencing the dopaminergic and other neurotransmitter systems. Adenosine and dopamine interact in the brain, and this might be one mechanism to explain how the important components of motivation (i.e. vigor, persistence and work output) and higher-order brain processes are involved in motor control. Caffeine maintains a higher dopamine concentration especially in those brain areas linked with attention. Through this neurochemical interaction, caffeine improves sustained attention, vigilance, and reduces symptoms of fatigue. Other aspects that are localized in the CNS are a reduction in skeletal muscle pain and force sensation, leading to a reduction in perception of effort during exercise and therefore influencing the motivational factors to sustain effort during exercise. Because not all CNS aspects have been examined in detail, one should consider that a placebo effect may also be present. Overall, it appears that the performance-enhancing effects of caffeine reside in the brain, although more research is necessary to reveal the exact mechanisms through which the CNS effect is established.