Ronald Fischer

Testing measurement invariance across groups: applications in crosscultural research

Researchers often compare groups of individuals on psychological variables. When comparing groups an assumption is made that the instrument measures the same psychological construct in all groups. If this assumption holds, the comparisons are valid and differences/similarities between groups can be meaningfully interpreted. If this assumption does not hold, comparisons and interpretations are not fully meaningful. The establishment of measurement invariance is a prerequisite for meaningful comparisons across groups. This paper first reviews the importance of equivalence in psychological research, and then the main theoretical and methodological issues regarding measurement invariance within the framework of confirmatory factor analysis. A step-by-step empirical example of measurement invariance testing is provided along with syntax examples for fitting such models in LISREL

Reliability and Validity of the Revised Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR-R) Self-Report Measure of Adult Romantic Attachment

Three studies examine the psychometric properties (i.e., the test-retest reliability, convergent, and discriminant validity) of Fraley, Waller, and Brennan’s Revised Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR-R) self-report measure of romantic attachment anxiety (model of self) and avoidance (model of others). Longitudinal analyses suggest that the ECR-R provided highly stable indicators of latent attachment during a 3-week period (85% shared variance). Hierarchical linear modeling analyses further validated the ECR-R, suggesting that it explained between 30% to 40% of the between-person variation in social interaction diary ratings of attachment-related emotions experienced during interactions with a romantic partner and only 5% to 15% of that in interactions with family and friends. Guidelines are offered regarding the conditions where highly reliable and precise measures of romantic attachment, such as the ECR-R, are deemed necessary and where shorter, albeit slightly less reliable measures, such as Bartholomew and Horowitz’s Relationship Questionnaire, may also be viable.

The Convergent, Discriminant, and Incremental Validity of Scores on a Self-Report Measure of Cultural Intelligence:

The article reports the results of three studies designed to extend the psychometric analyses of cultural intelligence (CQ) and to examine its utility in the prediction of cross-cultural adaptation. The first study supported the proposed four-factor (Cognitive, Meta-cognitive, Motivational, and Behavioral) structure of CQ in a large sample of international students (N = 346). The second study (N = 118) revealed a strong correlation (r = .82) between CQ and emotional intelligence and failed to support the incremental validity of CQ scores in the prediction of psychological, sociocultural, and academic adaptation in international students. The final study (N = 102) established discriminant validity (r = .04) between scores of CQ and a test of general cognitive ability (Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices) and convergent validity across scores of the CQ and Multicultural Personality Questionnaire subscales; however, CQ scores did not demonstrate additional incremental validity in the prediction of adaptive outcomes. The results are discussed in relation to issues arising from the use of self-report measures for the assessment of cultural intelligence and the utility of the CQ measure in international and intercultural settings.

Where Is Culture in Cross Cultural Research? An Outline of a Multilevel Research Process for Measuring Culture as a Shared Meaning System

Culture is often seen as a shared meaning system. This definition has important implications for cross cultural management research. This article outlines a multilevel research process model that identifies a number of crucial steps to be aware of, if culture is being treated as a shared construct. The model integrates recent advances on composition models in organizational research and equivalence and multilevel frameworks in cross cultural psychology research. The proposed model is discussed in relation to two principal areas of cross cultural management work: (a) the identification of cultural constructs at the country level and (b) individual-level studies aiming to unpackage cultural differences in attitudes and behaviour. Implications for management research and practice across cultures are discussed. Où se situe la culture dans la recherche interculturelle ? Les grandes lignes dun processus de recherche pluri-strates pour mesurer la culture en tant que système de signification partagée (Ronald Fischer) La culture est souvent perçue comme un système de signification partagée. Cette définition a des implications importantes pour la recherche en management interculturel. Je dresse ici les grandes lignes dun modèle de recherche à plusieurs niveaux (pluri-strates) qui identifie un certain nombre détapes cruciales quil nous faut appréhender si la culture doit être traitée comme une construction mentale partagée. Le modèle intègre les récentes avancées en ce qui concerne les modèles de composition en recherche organisationnelle et les cadres déquivalence pluri-strates en recherche psychologique interculturelle. Le modèle proposé est étudié en relation avec deux domaines clefs du management interculturel : a) lidentification des constructions interculturelles au niveau national et (b) les études à léchelon individuel visant à dissocier les différences culturelles dattitudes et de comportement. Les implications pour la recherche en gestion et la pratique du management dans différentes cultures sont étudiées.

Are Individual-Level and Country-Level Value Structures Different? Testing Hofstede’s Legacy With the Schwartz Value Survey:

Hofstede identified four value dimensions at the country level but did not find matching dimensions at the individual level. Schwartz discriminated different sets of value constructs at individual and country-levels, based on separate analyses per level. In this article, the authors directly examine the degree of similarity or isomorphism between the structure of values in individual- and country-level analyses, using multidimensional scaling followed by generalized Procrustes analysis. Using data from the Schwartz Value Survey from 53 and 66 countries, the authors find substantial similarity in structure across levels, but indices fall somewhat short of structural isomorphism. The authors then test hypotheses regarding possible causes of the less than perfect isomorphism between the levels. Number of countries (sample size at country level) and structural shifts in individual items account for some of the lack of isomorphism. Implications for future cross-cultural research are discussed.

Let’s Dance Together: Synchrony, Shared Intentionality and Cooperation

Previous research has shown that the matching of rhythmic behaviour between individuals (synchrony) increases cooperation. Such synchrony is most noticeable in music, dance and collective rituals. As well as the matching of behaviour, such collective performances typically involve shared intentionality: performers actively collaborate to produce joint actions. Over three experiments we examined the importance of shared intentionality in promoting cooperation from group synchrony. Experiment 1 compared a condition in which group synchrony was produced through shared intentionality to conditions in which synchrony or asynchrony were created as a by-product of hearing the same or different rhythmic beats. We found that synchrony combined with shared intentionality produced the greatest level of cooperation. To examinef the importance of synchrony when shared intentionality is present, Experiment 2 compared a condition in which participants deliberately worked together to produce synchrony with a condition in which participants deliberately worked together to produce asynchrony. We found that synchrony combined with shared intentionality produced the greatest level of cooperation. Experiment 3 manipulated both the presence of synchrony and shared intentionality and found significantly greater cooperation with synchrony and shared intentionality combined. Path analysis supported a reinforcement of cooperation model according to which perceiving synchrony when there is a shared goal to produce synchrony provides immediate feedback for successful cooperation so reinforcing the group’s cooperative tendencies. The reinforcement of cooperation model helps to explain the evolutionary conservation of traditional music and dance performances, and furthermore suggests that the collectivist values of such cultures may be an essential part of the mechanisms by which synchrony galvanises cooperative behaviours.

Cultural Differences in Academic Motivation Goals: A Meta-Analysis across 13 Societies.

A meta-analysis of academic motivation focused on the relations between students achievement goal orientations and societal values and human development indicators. The authors analyzed relevant studies using either A. J. Elliot and M. A. Churchs (1997) or M. J. Middleton and C. Midgleys (1997) achievement goal instruments separating mastery, performance approach, and performance avoidance goals, with 36,985 students from 13 societies. Ecological correlation and regression analyses showed that mastery goals are higher in egalitarian societies, whereas performance approach goals are higher in more embedded contexts and in less developed societies. Performance avoidance goals did not strongly relate to societal-level variables. The findings show that achievement goals are rooted within dominant societal values.

Environmental Consequences of the Desire to Dominate and Be Superior

A belief in human dominance over nature lies at the heart of current environmental problems. In this article, we extend the theoretical scope of social dominance theory by arguing that social dominance orientation (SDO) is an important variable in understanding person–environment relations. We argue that individuals high in SDO are more willing to exploit the environment in unsustainable ways because SDO promotes human hierarchical dominance over nature. Four studies provide support for this perspective. High SDO was associated with lower levels of environmental concern in a nationally representative New Zealand sample (Study 1) and in country-level data across 27 nations (Study 2). SDO was also positively related to utilization attitudes toward nature (Study 3) and mediated the gender difference in beliefs about anthropogenic climate change (Study 4), and both occurred independently of right-wing authoritarianism. Implications for the human-dominated view of nature subscribed to by those high in SDO are discussed.

Values and Organizational Justice Performance- and Seniority-Based Allocation Criteria in the United Kingdom and Germany

Reactions of full-time employees to reward-allocation decisions by managers that were based either on work performance or on seniority were surveyed in former East Germany and in the United Kingdom. Schwartz’s model of universal human values is predicted to moderate the perceived justice of these reward-allocation principles. It was found that self-enhancement versus self-transcendence is a more powerful moderator of justice perceptions compared with openness to change versus conservation values. The study demonstrates the usefulness of values research in explaining perceptions of justice and highlights the importance of values for justice theories.

Beyond Culture Learning Theory What Can Personality Tell Us About Cultural Competence

The meta-analytic study examined correlates of cultural competence as assessed by the Sociocultural Adaptation Scale. A total of 17 variables were analyzed from 66 independent studies (N = 10,672). In line with culture learning theory, situational factors such as length of residence (r = .16), cultural knowledge (r = .34), previous cross-cultural experience (r = .17), cultural distance (r = −.33), language proficiency (r = .35), and contact with host nationals (r = .29) were associated with better sociocultural adaptation. The meta-analysis was extended to personality variables, with small to medium effect sizes found for the “Big Five” traits of agreeableness (r = .16), conscientiousness (r = .22), openness/flexibility (r = .29), extraversion (r = .29), and neuroticism (r = −.32), and large effect sizes found for more narrowly defined, culture-relevant factors such as cultural empathy (r = .49) and cross-cultural self-efficacy (r = .45). The findings indicate that both personal and situational factors relate to cultural competence and that personality variables deserve greater attention in future studies of sociocultural adaptation.