Ronald H. Fortney

A COMPARISON OF PLANT COMMUNITIES IN MITIGATION AND REFERENCE WETLANDS IN THE MID-APPALACHIANS

Wetland destruction has plagued the U.S. for decades, but the need to compensate for these losses has only been embraced within the last 20 years. Because so many compensatory mitigation wetlands have been created, there is a need to assess the function of these valuable ecosystems relative to natural wetlands. The goal of this study was to evaluate the functional equivalency of mitigation wetlands in West Virginia in supporting hydrophytic plant communities. A series of nested quadrats was used to compare plant community structure among eleven mitigation and four naturally occurring reference wetlands. For all species combined, mean total percent cover across all sampling quadrats per wetland was similar between mitigation and reference wetlands. Species richness, evenness, and diversity were greater in mitigation than in reference wetlands. Mean weighted averages of plant communities calculated using cover values and wetland indicator status were similar between mitigation and reference wetlands. There were, however, major differences in species composition. Mitigation sites tended to have more pioneer species, non-native dominants, and species with relatively lower conservation quality. Ordination analyses suggested that compositional differences become smaller as mitigation sites age. Both mitigation and natural wetlands met criteria for hydrophytic vegetation according to the 1987 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Wetland Delineation Manual. These data suggest that the mitigation wetlands investigated in this study adequately support hydrophytic vegetation and appear to be developing vegetation similar to reference standards.

The Paraguay-Paraná Hidrovía: Protecting the Pantanal with Lessons from the Past

(meaning “great swamp” in Portuguese) is an immense floodplain mosaic of seasonally inundated grasslands, river corridors, gallery forests, lakes, and dry forests (Figure 1). This 140,000 km2 alluvial depression, located in the upstream basin of the Paraquay River, stretches across western Brazil and parts of Bolivia and Paraguay. Roughly 10 times the size of the remaining Florida Everglades, the Pantanal has been referred to as the world’s largest continuous wetland (Alho et al. 1988). Plant and animal life are strongly influenced by distinct seasonal flooding, with water levels during the rainy season as much as 5 meters higher than during the dry season (Junk and da Silva 1995). Periods of severe floods follow extreme droughts, and only a portion of the Pantanal remains inundated throughout the year (Hamilton et al. 1996). The Pantanal is a key hydrologic resource in South America. It sustains flows in the Paraguay River throughout both the wet and dry seasons, which has a major impact on both the ecology and economics of the region between the Pantanal and the Atlantic Ocean. It is also an integral part of the hydrologic cycle of South America because of its size and the quantity of water it temporarily stores annually (Ponce 1995). The seasonal flooding regime supports a productive and diverse fauna, including some of Brazil’s most endangered species (Nature Conservancy 1994). The Pantanal has one of the most diverse avian communities on the planet, with more than 650 species of birds identified. The region is home to aquatic birds, such as the jabiru (Jabiru mycteria), many herons and egrets (order Ciconiiformes), jacanas (Jacana jacana), the anhinga (Anhinga anhinga), and the endangered hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus). Caimans (Caiman yacare), capybara (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris), piranhas (several genera, including Serrasalmus and Pygocentris), and several monkey species (Alouatta caraya and Cebus apella are the most common) also thrive in this wetland, along with occasional jaguars (Panthera onca), small forest cats (genus Felis), giant anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), giant river otters (Pteronura brasiliensis), and some 20 different species of bats (order Chiroptera). In only a portion of the Pantanal, more than 400 species of fish have been listed (Marins et al. 1981); additional species have been identified in more recent studies (Por 1995). The diversity of interacting habitat types and the direct connection with neighboring South American phytogeographic regions also produce a remarkable,

Aquatic plant community composition and distribution along an inundation gradient at two ecologically-distinct sites in the Pantanal region of Brazil

In spite of its size and biological significance, we know little about the ecology of the Pantanal, a 140,000 km2 floodplain in west-central Brazil. Increasing human pressures make this lack of understanding particularly critical. Using transects and 1 m2 circular plots, we documented floristic composition and interacting-environmental conditions associated with littoral herbaceous vegetation along inundation gradients at two ecologically-distinct sites in the Pantanal. We recorded water depth and percent cover for each species in Baía Piuval, a bay in the Bento Gomes River (Mato Grosso), and in a bay in the Acurizal Reserve (Mato Grosso do Sul). Baía Piuval and Acurizal plots contained a total of 22 and 18 macrophyte species, respectively. At both sites Eichhornia azurea and Salvinia auriculata occurred most frequently as dominant or co-dominant species. Chi2 analysis, used to quantify zonations along depth gradients, generated four different groups of species ( p < 0.05) for Baía Piuval. For Acurizal, two significantly different groups ( p < 0.05) occurred with an intermediate assemblage of species that could be assigned to either group. Canonical correspondence analysis, used to analyze species distributions, showed a pattern consistent with the Chi2 results for Baía Piuval but not for Acurizal. Higher species richness and diversity occurred where dry season and low water levels coincided and richness was generally highest in proximal plots where water depths were lowest. Our results are consistent with the few other plant ecological studies reported for the Pantanal. This study can be considered additive to needed baseline data on biota and ecology of this region of South America.

Effects of highway construction on stream water quality and macroinvertebrate condition in a Mid-Atlantic Highlands watershed, USA.

Refining best management practices (BMPs) for future highway construction depends on a comprehensive understanding of environmental impacts from current construction methods. Based on a before-after-control impact (BACI) experimental design, long-term stream monitoring (1997-2006) was conducted at upstream (as control, n = 3) and downstream (as impact, n = 6) sites in the Lost River watershed of the Mid-Atlantic Highlands region, West Virginia. Monitoring data were analyzed to assess impacts of during and after highway construction on 15 water quality parameters and macroinvertebrate condition using the West Virginia stream condition index (WVSCI). Principal components analysis (PCA) identified regional primary water quality variances, and paired t tests and time series analysis detected seven highway construction-impacted water quality parameters which were mainly associated with the second principal component. In particular, impacts on turbidity, total suspended solids, and total iron during construction, impacts on chloride and sulfate during and after construction, and impacts on acidity and nitrate after construction were observed at the downstream sites. The construction had statistically significant impacts on macroinvertebrate index scores (i.e., WVSCI) after construction, but did not change the overall good biological condition. Implementing BMPs that address those construction-impacted water quality parameters can be an effective mitigation strategy for future highway construction in this highlands region.

A three-tiered framework to select, prioritize, and evaluate potential wetland and stream mitigation banking sites

Wetland and stream mitigation programs originated to offset the unavoidable impacts to wetlands and streams from activities related to development. Until recently, most mitigation in the United States and globally was done on a case-by-case basis, with site selection based on availability. Today, systematic programs that choose sites based on structural and ecological characteristics that give an indication of the feasibility of the site for wetland and stream mitigation banking are necessary. This paper outlines a three-level framework to select, prioritize, and evaluate potential wetland and stream mitigation banking sites. The framework was tested on three ten-digit hydrologic unit code watersheds in West Virginia that were in three different physiographic regions and near proposed future road construction projects. Level 1 included a Geographic Information System (GIS) based analysis of watersheds and appropriate spatial data. Level 2 was a field reconnaissance survey of sites using evaluation criteria weighted with the pairwise comparison Analytical Hierarchy Process. Level 3 was an on-site evaluation of the highly ranked sites to verify the modeling approach. Results showed successful selection of suitable sites for combined wetland and stream mitigation banking. We found the framework to be an efficient and non-subjective way to identify and prioritize wetland and stream mitigation banking sites and has direct applications for other states or regions.

Rare Plant Communities in Canaan Valley, West Virginia

Abstract Canaan Valley (hereafter, the Valley) is a 34,600-ac (14,000-ha), high-elevation valley in the Central Appalachian Mountains of West Virginia. Its diverse wetland and upland habitats support a wide variety of plant communities, many of which are extremely rare. The prominence of rare communities is associated with the diversity of topographic settings, soils, geology, and hydrology, as well as the effects of human settlement and resource exploitation. Most of the rare plant communities are found in the wetlands of the Valleys floor. Virtually all of the communities associated with the Valleys extensive cold peatlands are rare, including (1) mixed conifer swamp-forests of Picea rubens (Red Spruce), Abies balsamea (Balsam Fir), and Tsuga canadensis (Eastern Hemlock), (2) mixed conifer-Fraxinus nigra (Black Ash) bog-forests in limestone-influenced wetlands in the central and southern parts of the Valley, and (3) extensive Sphagnum and Polytrichum bogs in the central and northern parts of Canaan Valley. Shrub communities such as Alnus incana ssp. rugosa (Speckled Alder), Viburnum recognitum (Smooth Arrowwood), and Salix discolor (Glaucous Willow) growing on mineral soils along waterways are also rare. Populus tremuloides (Trembling Aspen) groves, although abundant in the Valley, are extremely limited in the Appalachian region. Lastly, the grassand forb-dominated grass-bald communities on the surrounding mountain rims show an extremely limited distribution throughout the Central Appalachians.

Water Quality Trends in the Blackwater River Watershed, West Virginia

Abstract An understanding of historic and current water quality is needed to manage and improve aquatic communities within the Blackwater River watershed, WV. The Blackwater River, which historically offered an excellent Salvelinus fontinalis (Brook Trout) fishery, has been affected by logging, coal mining, use of off-road vehicles, and land development. Using information-theoretic methods, we examined trends in water quality at 12 sites in the watershed for the 14 years of 1980–1993. Except for Beaver Creek, downward trends in acidity and upward trends in alkalinity, conductivity, and hardness were consistent with decreases in hydrogen ion concentration. Water-quality trends for Beaver Creek were inconsistent with the other sites and reflect ongoing coal-mining influences. Dissolved oxygen trended downward, possibly due to natural conditions, but remained above thresholds that would be detrimental to aquatic life. Water quality changed only slightly within the watershed from 1980–1993, possibly reflecting few changes in development and land uses during this time. These data serve as a baseline for future water-quality studies and may help to inform management planning.

The vascular flora of roadside habitats in West Virginia, USA.

ABSTRACT  In order to provide vegetation managers with information on roadside habitats in West Virginia, a statewide roadside vegetation study was conducted in 2000. The vegetation along nearly 1,500 km of four-lane highways was sampled in 339 randomly selected 20 m wide strip plots. An index of occurrence class (IOC) for each species was calculated using the product of the percent frequency of occurrence and relative abundance. A total of 467 species were documented, 325 of which were native. Seven families accounted for more than 50% of all species. When ranked on the basis of total IOC values, 15 of the top 25 species were introduced. Mean IOC values for introduced species (6.0) were significantly greater than native species (4.3, p = 0.0013). We propose that despite initial variability of landform, parent material, forest cover types, and climate, the relative similarity of species composition along the highways we sampled was the result of the physical and biological disturbances associated with initial construction (cuts and fills), and postconstruction seeding and vegetation management efforts.

Rare Plants of Canaan Valley, West Virginia

Abstract Canaan Valley (hereafter, the Valley), in northeastern West Virginia, supports large areas of wetland, upland forest, and upland non-forest habitats at relatively high elevations, providing potential habitat for a variety of rare plant species. The presence of 54 species of plants considered to be rare and of conservation concern in West Virginia plus 22 watchlist species has been confirmed in the Valley. No federally listed threatened or endangered plants have been found. One of the rare species is the globally critically imperiled Platanthera shriveri (Shrivers Frilly Orchid) and 4 are globally vulnerable—Gymnocarpium appalachianum (Appalachian Oak Fern), Hypericum mitchellianum (Blue Ridge St. Johnswort), Euphorbia purpurea (Glade Spurge), and Polemonium vanbruntiae (Bog Jacobs-ladder). Rare plants are found throughout the Valley; 80% occur in wetlands, and a significant assemblage is associated with wetlands on Greenbrier Limestone. Globally rare species are Appalachian endemics, but 41 of the Valleys rare and watchlist plants are primarily northern in distribution. Extant native populations are known in West Virginia only from the Valley for 3 species—Carex atherodes (Awned Sedge), Gentianopsis crinita (Greater Fringed Gentian), and Viburnum trilobum (American Cranberry-bush)—and a significant portion of all known West Virginia occurrences for at least another 16 species are in the Valley. Several rare plant species grow in multiple places in the Valley, but others are known from only 1 or 2 sites and are quite vulnerable. Non-native insect pests threaten Abies balsamea (Balsam Fir) and Fraxinus nigra (Black Ash). There are a number of threats to the Valleys rare plants: invasive plants, especially Typha latifolia (Broadleaf Cattail), Iris pseudoacorus (Yellow Flag), Phalaris arundinacea (Reed Canarygrass), and Microstegium vimineum (Japanese Stiltgrass); browsing by Odocoileus virginianus (White-tailed Deer); residential development; hydrologic changes to wetlands; and climate change.

Water-Quality Assessment and Environmental Impact Minimization for Highway Construction in a Miningimpacted Watershed: The Beaver Creek Drainage

Abstract Beaver Creek, a tributary of the Blackwater River just north of Canaan Valley in northeastern West Virginia, runs parallel to the proposed alignment of a major four-lane highway called Appalachian Corridor H. Beaver Creek and many of its major tributaries are characterized by low pH, little alkalinity, and high levels of dissolved metals due to the geochemical characteristics of the soils parent material and continuing impacts from past coal mining. During the planning phase of this road project, we identified two major environmental concerns: (1) our ability to predict and manage water-quality impairments that will likely result from the cuts and fills of new material, and (2) the legacy effects of mine refuse from historic coal mines. In the latter case, although many refuse sites are located outside the proposed highways alignment, drainage from these sites will be intercepted by the highways water-control structures. We (West Virginia University [WVU]) have collaborated with the West Virginia Division of Highways (WVDOH) to minimize construction-related impacts to Beaver Creeks water quality. More specifically, we have evaluated strategies by which water collection and conveyance structures can be integrated with passive water-remediation processes during the highways design and construction. In March 2000, we began monitoring water quality in the Beaver Creek drainage. We measured physical, chemical, and biological indicators of water quality and present these data here to serve as a baseline for future comparisons. In general, the water in Beaver Creek was acidic with an average pH of 5.1 in its headwaters and 6.1 above its confluence with the Blackwater River. The water also carried little or no alkalinity. The untreated water seeping from mine-waste piles was highly acidic, with an average pH of 3.0, carried high levels of dissolved sulfate and iron, and featured excess acid-production capacity. After we identified the main sources of water-quality impairment—the locations of mine-waste piles and acidic seeps—we formulated preliminary recommendations for minimizing the impacts of highway construction on the Creeks water quality. For example, we recommended the implementation of acid-base accounting on the overburden that would be disturbed during construction. We also suggested special material-handling procedures. Based on our preliminary water-quality data, we recommended a series of passive treatment processes that could be incorporated into the roads design, construction, and operation. Future treatment decisions will be informed by our growing dataset. Further, because many sources of water-quality impairment are located within the basin but beyond the roads proposed alignment, efforts must be made to engage diverse stakeholders to leverage support for protecting and restoring the Beaver Creek watershed.